Allāh has revealed many of His names and attributes in the Qurʾān and through the Ḥadīth of the Prophet Muḥammad. Among the most well-known are the 99 Names of Allāh, which are not exhaustive but comprehensively represent His divine attributes. Some examples include:
Al-Rahman (The Most Merciful)1 , Al-Rahim (The Most Compassionate)2 , Al-Malik (The Sovereign)3 , Al-Quddus (The Holy)4 , As-Salam (The Source of Peace)5 , Al-Mu’min (The Guardian of Faith)6 , Al-Muhaymin (The Protector)7 , Al-Aziz (The Mighty)8 , Al-Jabbar (The Compeller)9 , Al-Mutakabbir (The Supreme)10, Al-Khaliq (The Creator)11, Al-Bari’ (The Maker)12, Al-Musawwir (The Fashioner)13, Al-Ghaffar (The Ever-Forgiving)14, Al-Qahhar (The Subduer)15, Al-Wahhab (The Bestower)16, Al-Razzaq (The Provider)17, Al-Fattah (The Opener)18, Al-Alim (The All-Knowing)19, Al-Qabid (The Withholder)20, Al-Basit (The Expander)21, Al-Khafid (The Abaser)22, Al-Rafi’ (The Exalter)23, Al-Mu’izz (The Giver of Honor)24, Al-Mudhill (The Giver of Dishonour) 25, Al-Sami’ (The All-Hearing)26, Al-Basīr (The All-Seeing)27, Al-Hakam (The Judge)28, Al-`Adl (The Just)29, Al-Latif (The Subtle)30 ,
Al-Khabīr (The All-Aware)31, Al-Halim (The Forbearing)32, Al-Azim (The Great)33, AlGhafūr (The All-Forgiving)34, Ash-Shakur (The Appreciative)35, Al-Ali (The Most High)36 , Al-Kabir (The Most Great)37, Al-Hafiz (The Guardian)38, Al-Muqit (The Sustainer)39, AlHasib (The Reckoner)40, Al-Jalil (The Majestic)41, Al-Karim (The Generous)42, Al-Raqib (The Watchful)43, Al-Mujib (The Responsive)44, Al-Wasi’ (The All-Encompassing)45, AlHakim (The All-Wise)46, Al-Wadūd (The Loving) 47, Al-Majid (The Most Glorious)48, AlBa’ith (The Resurrector) 49, Ash-Shahid (The Witness)50, Al-Haqq (The Truth)51, Al-Wakil (The Trustee)52, Al-Qawi (The Strong)53, Al-Matin (The Firm)54, Al-Wali (The Protecting Friend)55, Al-Hamid (The Praiseworthy)56, Al-Muhsi (The Accounter)57, Al-Mubdi’ (The Originator)58, Al-Mu’id (The Restorer)59, Al-Muhyi (The Giver of Life)60, Al-Mumit (The Taker of Life)61, Al-Hayy (The Ever-Living)62, Al-Qayyum (The Self-Sustaining)63, Al-Wajid (The Finder)64, Al-Majid (The Noble)65, Al-Wahid (The One)66, As-Samad (The Eternal
Refuge)67, Al-Qadir (The Omnipotent)68, Al-Muqtadir (The Powerful)69, Al-Muqaddim (The Expediter)70, Al-Mu’akhkhir (The Delayer)71 , Al-Awwal (The First)72, Al-Akhir (The Last)73 , Al-Zāhir (The Manifest)74, Al-Batin (The Hidden)75, Al-Walī (The Governor)76, Al-Muta’ali (The Most Exalted)77, Al-Barr (The Doer of Good)78, At-Tawwab (The Accepter of Repentance)79, Al-Muntaqim (The Avenger)80, Al-Afu (The Pardoner)81, Al-Rauf (The Kind)82, Malik al-Mulk (The Owner of All)83, Dhul-Jalal wal-Ikram (The Lord of Majesty and Bounty)84, Al-Muqsit (The Equitable)85, Al-Jami’ (The Gatherer)86, Al-Ghani (The SelfSufficient)87, Al-Mughni (The Enricher)88, Al-Mani’ (The Preventer) 89, Ad-Darr (The Creator of Harm)90, Al-Nafi’ (The Creator of Good)91, Al-Nur (The Light)92, Al-Hadi (The Guide)93 , Al-Badi’ (The Incomparable)94 , Al-Baqi (The Everlasting)95, Al-Warith (The Inheritor)96, AlRashid (The Guide to the Right Path)97, Al-Sabur (The Patient)98, Al-Mu’akhkhir (The Delayer)99, Al-Muqaddar (The Decree Maker)100, Al-Mu’allim (The Teacher)101, Al-Khallaq
(The Supreme Creator)102, Al-Musabbib (The Causer)103, Al-Mu’jiz (The Performer of Miracles)104, Al-Qayyim (The Maintainer)105 , Al-Mu’ti (The Giver)106, Al-Qabid (The Seizer)107, Al-Musahhil (The Facilitator)108 .
These are just a few of the many names and attributes of Allāh mentioned in the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth. It is essential to note that Muslims should be cautious when translating or explaining these names and attributes to avoid misrepresentations.
Numerous avenues lead us towards the comprehension and acknowledgement of Allāh. From the vast expanse of the cosmos to the intricacies of our environment, His magnificence is evident. Our innate curiosity, wonder, quest for meaning and purpose, and pursuit of knowledge and understanding guide us towards Him. However, the most profound means to truly know Allāh is by immersing ourselves in His divine discourse as enshrined in the Qurʾān. By scrutinising Allāh’s self-portrayal—His Names and Attributes—and reflecting upon His actions as manifested in events and behaviours, we can truly perceive the essence of His divine omnipresence. These names and attributes emphasise the perfection, majesty, and uniqueness of Allāh. As Ibn Qudama states, understanding and believing in these attributes is essential for a Muslim’s faith.109 They enable us to recognise Allāh’s greatness and omnipotence, inspiring love, fear, and hope.
هو الأول والاخر والظهر والباطن – وهو بكل شيء عليم
“He is the First and the Last; the Outer and the Inner; He has knowledge of all things”. 110
هُوَ ٱللَّهُ ٱلَّذِى لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ۖ عَـٰلِمُ ٱلْغَيْبِ وَٱلشَّهَـٰدَةِ ۖ هُوَ ٱلرَّحْمَـٰنُ ٱلرَّحِيمُ ٢٢
هُوَ ٱللَّهُ ٱلَّذِى لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلْمَلِكُ ٱلْقُدُّوسُ ٱلسَّلَـٰمُ ٱلْمُؤْمِنُ ٱلْمُهَيْمِنُ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْجَبَّارُ ٱلْمُتَكَبِّرُ ۚ سُبْحَـٰنَ ٱللَّهِ عَمَّا يُشْرِكُونَ ٢٣
هُوَ ٱللَّهُ ٱلْخَـٰلِقُ ٱلْبَارِئُ ٱلْمُصَوِّرُ ۖ لَهُ ٱلْأَسْمَآءُ ٱلْحُسْنَىٰ ۚ يُسَبِّحُ لَهُۥ مَا فِى ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ ۖ وَهُوَ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْحَكِيمُ ٢٤
“He is the one to be served; there is none other to be served but Him. It is He who knows what is hidden as well as what is in the open. He is the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy. He is the one to be served: there is none other to be done but Him, the King, the Pure One, Source of Peace, Granter of Security, Guardian over all, the Almighty, the Compeller, the Truly Great; The one to be served is far above anything they consider to be His partner. He is the one to be served: the Creator, the Originator, the Shaper. The best names belong to Him. Everything in the heavens and earth glorifies Him: He is the Almighty, the Wise”. 111
The names and attributes of Allāh hold great significance as they help us understand and appreciate His divine essence, enhance our worship, and strengthen our relationship with Him. Understanding and internalising the various names and attributes of Allāh helps Muslims to strengthen their faith, deepen their love for Allāh, and develop a profound appreciation for His Majesty and Mercy. By contemplating these divine names and attributes, believers can cultivate a closer relationship with Allāh and strive to emulate His attributes to the best of their ability in their daily lives. For example, when reflecting upon Allāh as AlRahman (The Most Merciful) and Al-Rahim (The Most Compassionate), a believer is reminded of the vastness of Allāh’s mercy and compassion, which should inspire them to be more merciful and compassionate towards others. Similarly, by contemplating Allāh’s names Al-Ghafūr (The Forgiving) and At-Tawwab (The Accepter of Repentance), a Muslim is encouraged to seek Allāh’s forgiveness and mercy, acknowledging their shortcomings and making a conscious effort to improve.
Moreover, the knowledge of Allāh’s names and attributes instils a sense of humility and awe in the hearts of believers. As they grasp the greatness of Allāh’s power and wisdom, they become more aware of their limitations and their reliance on Allāh’s guidance and support. This realisation fosters a sense of gratitude and submission, encouraging believers to worship Allāh sincerely and wholeheartedly.
Allāh’s names and attributes offer insights into His divine nature, enabling us to recognise and appreciate His infinite power, knowledge, mercy, and other qualities. As mentioned in the Qurʾān:
هُوَ ٱللَّهُ ٱلْخَـٰلِقُ ٱلْبَارِئُ ٱلْمُصَوِّرُ ۖ لَهُ ٱلْأَسْمَآءُ ٱلْحُسْنَىٰ ۚ
“He is Allāh, the Creator, the Inventor, the Fashioner; to Him belong the best names”.
Ibn Taymiyya elaborates, stating that the divine attributes help us understand the essence of Allāh.113 The names and attributes of Allāh encourage us to worship Him more sincerely and devotedly as we come to appreciate His boundless mercy, generosity, and forgiveness. The Prophet Muḥammad said, “Allāh has ninety-nine names, one hundred minus one, whoever counts (and preserves) them shall enter Paradise”. 114
By understanding the names and attributes of Allāh, we can develop a closer relationship with Him, seeking His assistance and guidance in various aspects of our lives. Allāh states in the Qurʾān:
وَلِلَّهِ ٱلْأَسْمَآءُ ٱلْحُسْنَىٰ فَٱدْعُوهُ بِهَا ۖ وَذَرُوا۟ ٱلَّذِينَ يُلْحِدُونَ فِىٓ أَسْمَـٰٓئِهِۦ ۚ سَيُجْزَوْنَ مَا كَانُوا۟ يَعْمَلُونَ ١٨٠
“And to Allāh belong the best names, so invoke Him by them”. 115
Imam Aḥmad emphasised the importance of understanding the divine attributes, which forms a crucial aspect of Islamic belief.116 Recognising the greatness of Allāh through His names and attributes cultivates humility and gratitude in believers as they realise their dependence on Him. This sentiment is echoed by Imam Shafiʻi, who said, “Knowledge of Allāh’s attributes increases the fear of Allāh and brings the servant closer to Him”. 117
The names and attributes of Allāh inspire believers to strive for moral and spiritual development as they seek to emulate divine qualities such as mercy, forgiveness, and justice in their own lives. The Prophet Muḥammad said, “Be merciful to those on earth, and the One in the heavens will be merciful to you”. 118 This ḥadīth highlights the importance of reflecting on Allāh’s attributes in our actions and behaviour.
Recognising the names and attributes of Allāh, such as Al-Wahhāb (the Giver of Gifts), AlRaḥmān (the Most Merciful), and Al-Ghafūr (the All-Forgiving), cultivates hope and trust in
Allāh. Believers are encouraged to rely on Him for guidance, sustenance, and support, knowing that He is All-Wise, All-Knowing, and All-Powerful. Ṭaḥāwi reinforces this idea and emphasises that understanding Allāh’s attributes is crucial for fostering trust and hope in Him.119
In times of hardship, believers can find solace and strength in the names and attributes of Allāh, such as Al-Wakīl (the Trustee), Al-Jabbār (the Compeller), and Al-Mujīb (the Responder to Prayer). By remembering and invoking these names, believers can develop resilience and navigate challenges with faith and determination. This idea is supported by Imam Shāfiʻī, who said, “The more a servant knows Allāh, the more he relies on Him”. 120
The knowledge of Allāh’s names and attributes, such as Al-ʿAzīz (the Mighty) and Al-Jalīl (the Majestic), instils a sense of reverence and awe for Allāh in the hearts of believers. This understanding encourages a deep respect for Allāh and the principles of Islam, which in turn can lead to a more devoted and sincere practice of the faith. As Imam Abu Ḥanīfa emphasised, the knowledge of Allāh’s attributes inspires reverence and encourages adherence to the divine commandments.121
By contemplating Allāh’s names and attributes, believers can seek guidance in decisionmaking. For instance, reflecting on Allāh as Al-Hakīm (the Wise) and Al-Basīr (the AllSeeing) can inspire believers to seek His guidance in making choices, trusting in His infinite wisdom and knowledge. Ibn Taymiyya discusses the importance of relying on Allāh’s attributes when seeking guidance in life’s decisions.122
Contemplating Allāh’s names and attributes, such as Al-Razzāq (the Provider) and Al-Wahhāb (the Giver of Gifts), fosters a sense of gratitude in believers for the countless blessings they receive from Allāh. This gratitude can inspire contentment, happiness, and generosity towards others. As the Prophet Muḥammad said, “Whoever does not thank people, does not thank Allāh”. 123
In seeking to gain a deeper understanding of Allāh, we must understand the attributes of God. However, throughout Islamic history, some have deviated away from the correct methodology, which the early Muslims laid out. In outlining this methodology, we must first understand some fundamental principles which arise when discussing the attributes.
Tawḥīd implies that God is the only worthy object of worship, best exemplified in the Qurʾānic statement, “There is no deity but God”. 124 It is worth noting that while tashbīh (likeness) and tanzīh (transcendence) are inherently linked to tawḥīd, only the latter is appropriately a feature of it. Tanzīh is used positively, while tashbīh always carries the negative connotations of tajsim (anthropomorphism). Tawḥīd entails that the various attributes that predicate God are distinct, and for God alone, the creation sharing in these is, at best metaphorical. To share in the predication of an attribute is where tashbīh and tanzīh mark their difference; tashbīh denotes similarities or likenesses entailing tajsim. At the same time, tanzīh denotes a distinctness and uniqueness in God’s attributes.
The correct approach to understanding the attributes of Allāh can be found in the methodology of the early generations of Muslims; This approach is known as the Atharī School of theology and has taken its name due to the position of only understanding ṢifātAllāh based upon narrations (Athar). The school’s claimants state the Atharī creed is the creed of the ṣaḥāba (companions); the earliest reference point of codification is Aḥmad bin Ḥanbal. 125 The Atharī school was later espoused by scholars such as Ibn Qudama and Ibn Taymiyya. This approach adheres to a straightforward and literal approach to understanding the divine attributes, based on the principle of “accepting the texts as they are” without delving into their metaphysical implications. 126 In doing so, one avoids ta’wīl (allegorical interpretation) and tafwīḍ (consigning the meaning to Allāh), as these may lead to distortions of the original meanings.
This should not be confused with a literal affirmation of Allāh’s attributes which would be anthropomorphism; instead, it is an affirmation of the divine attributes without likening Allāh to His creation or attempting to describe the modality of these attributes (kayf).127 The
principle of “accepting the texts as they are” does not necessitate anthropomorphism, as it maintains the transcendence and uniqueness of Allāh, who is “nothing like unto Him”. 128
For example, when the Qurʾān speaks of Allāh’s “Hand” or “Face”, the Atharī school does not interpret these attributes in a literal, human-like manner.129 Rather, it affirms their existence without describing their modality or comparing them to human characteristics. As Imam Aḥmad states, “We affirm what Allāh has affirmed for Himself… without delving into how or likening Him to His creation”. 130 This understanding is clearly echoed in the Qurʾān:
فَاطِرُ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ ۚ جَعَلَ لَكُم مِّنْ أَنفُسِكُمْ أَزْوَٰجًۭا وَمِنَ ٱلْأَنْعَـٰمِ أَزْوَٰجًۭا ۖ يَذْرَؤُكُمْ فِيهِ ۚ لَيْسَ كَمِثْلِهِۦ شَىْءٌۭ ۖ وَهُوَ ٱلسَّمِيعُ ٱلْبَصِيرُ ١١
“the Creator of the heavens and earth.’ He made mates for you from among yourselves––and for the animals too––so that you may multiply. There is nothing like Him: He is the All Hearing, the All Seeing”. 131
Furthermore, the Prophet Muḥammad cautioned against delving too deeply into the nature of the divine attributes, supporting the notion of accepting them at face value, “Reflect upon the creation of Allāh, but do not reflect upon the essence of Allāh.”132; “Do not ponder on the essence of Allāh but ponder on His blessings and favours”. 133 The Ṣaḥāba also reiterated this position, Ibn ʿAbbās, said: “Allāh is described as He described Himself without asking how”. 134 Renowned scholars have also affirmed the Atharī approach to understanding the names and attributes of Allāh: Imam Malik stated: “Allāh’s Istiwā (ascension) over the Throne is known, its modality is unknown, belief in it is obligatory, and questioning it is an innovation”. 135 Ibn Taymiyya: “We affirm what Allāh has affirmed for Himself or what His Messenger has affirmed for Him, without interpreting the meaning, without likening Him to His creation, and without denying any of His attributes”. 136 Al-Ṭaḥāwi: “We affirm for Allāh what He has affirmed for Himself in His Book and what His Messenger has affirmed for
Him, without distortion or denial, without asking how or likening Him to His creation”. 137 Ibn Qudama: “We believe in the attributes of Allāh mentioned in His Book and in the Sunnah of His Messenger, without denying any of them or interpreting them allegorically”. 138 By examining these sources, it becomes evident that the Atharī school’s approach to understanding the names and attributes of Allāh is deeply rooted in the Qurʾān, Ḥadīth, and the sayings of the Ṣaḥāba, Salaf, and renowned scholars
The Atharī school critiques the Kalām theologians and Muslim philosophers for their overemphasis on rationality and speculative theology, which can lead to the denial or distortion of specific divine attributes. For example, al-Ghazali leans towards allegorical interpretation and argues for metaphorically understanding some of Allāh’s attributes. 139 This approach can lead to an incorrect understanding of the divine attributes and undermine the simplicity and clarity of the original texts. The different understandings of Allāh between the Atharī, Ashʿarī and Mu’tazilī schools are based on their perceptions of tawḥīd. Each school has developed formulae to understand Ṣifāt-Allāh. However, these formulae are constricted. For example, if we consider the āyāt “…O Iblīs, what prevented you from prostrating to that which I created with My hands…”. 140 The Atharī school takes the position of affirming the attribute of a hand and the literal meaning, without tashbīḥ (likeness) or tamthīl (comparison) to humanity, negating knowledge of the kafiyya (reality). The Ashʿarī school affirms the attribute. However, it negates knowledge of its meaning and reality and, in turn, interprets the attribute to mean power. However, the Mu’tazali school rejects the meaning of Yad (hand); the Mu’tazali position is Ta’wīl (interpretation), meaning either God’s Essence or Grace.141 The verse indicates the uniqueness of Adam’s creation, namely being created by Allāh’s hands. We find inconsistency within the theology Ashʿarī school when discussing other ṢifātAllāh. When talking about Ṣifāt al-ḏhāt, such as knowledge, the Ash’aris confirm Allāh’s knowledge just as the Atharī school does. i.e., Allāh’s knowledge is an affirmed attribute, and the word al-‘Alīm (All-Knowing) is understood in its literal usage, and the reality is in a way that suits Allāh’s Majesty without tashbīḥ or tamthīl. However, the Mu’tazilīs state that Allāh’s knowledge is not independent, eternal knowledge. Instead, His Knowledge is Himself.
The Atharī school critiques Muslim philosophers and Kalām theologians for their reliance on rationality and speculative theology, often at the expense of clear textual evidence from the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth. By examining their arguments and assessing the positions of the Ṣaḥāba, the Salaf, and notable scholars, we can better understand the basis of this critique. The school also raises concerns about the influence of foreign philosophical traditions on Muslim philosophers and the potential deviation from authentic Islamic teachings.
Muslim philosophers, such as Al-Fārābī, Ibn Sina, and Ibn Rushd, were heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, particularly the works of Aristotle and Plato. While they attempted to harmonise Islamic theology with Greek thought, this often resulted in the reinterpretation of Islamic teachings to fit within a foreign philosophical framework. Ibn Taymiyya criticised the adoption of Greek philosophical concepts and methods, asserting that they were unnecessary and harmful to the proper understanding of Islamic teachings.142
Neoplatonic thought, which was adopted by some Muslim philosophers like Ibn Sina, introduced the concept of the emanation of existence from the One (Allāh) through a hierarchical chain of beings. This idea contradicts the Islamic teaching of Allāh’s direct and continuous involvement in creation, as stated in the Qurʾān:
إِنَّ رَبَّكُمُ ٱللَّهُ ٱلَّذِى خَلَقَ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضَ فِى سِتَّةِ أَيَّامٍۢ ثُمَّ ٱسْتَوَىٰ عَلَى ٱلْعَرْشِ يُغْشِى ٱلَّيْلَ ٱلنَّهَارَ يَطْلُبُهُۥ حَثِيثًۭا وَٱلشَّمْسَ وَٱلْقَمَرَ وَٱلنُّجُومَ مُسَخَّرَٰتٍۭ بِأَمْرِهِۦٓ ۗ أَلَا لَهُ ٱلْخَلْقُ وَٱلْأَمْرُ ۗ تَبَارَكَ ٱللَّهُ رَبُّ ٱلْعَـٰلَمِينَ ٥٤
“Your Lord is God, who created the heavens and earth in six Days, then rose on the throne; He makes the night cover the day in swift pursuit; He created the sun, moon, and stars to be subservient to His command; all creation and command belong to Him. Exalted be God, Lord of all the worlds”. 143
Imam Shafiʻi stressed the importance of adhering to the Qurʾān and Sunnah in understanding the nature of Allāh’s relationship with creation rather than adopting foreign philosophical ideas.144 Muslim philosophers strongly emphasised intellect and reason as the primary means of acquiring knowledge and understanding the divine. While reason plays a significant role in understanding certain aspects of Islamic theology, it should not be used to negate or
reinterpret the clear textual evidence from the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth. Imam Abu Ḥanīfa emphasised that reason should be used in harmony with revelation rather than as an independent source of knowledge that could potentially contradict the teachings of Islam.145
The relationship between Muslim philosophers and Kalām theologians is complex and multifaceted. While both groups aimed to understand and articulate Islamic theology, their methodologies and sources of influence often differed. Despite these differences, there were instances where the works of Muslim philosophers had a significant impact on the development of Kalām theology. Muslim philosophers and Kalām theologians were both parts of the broader intellectual tradition in the Islamic world. They shared a common goal of seeking knowledge and understanding the divine, sometimes leading to cross-pollination of ideas between the two groups. Muslim philosophers and Kalām theologians employed reason, logic, and argumentation in their pursuit of knowledge, although to varying degrees and with different emphases
Muslim philosophers, as mentioned earlier, were heavily influenced by Greek philosophy, especially the works of Aristotle and Plato. Kalām theologians, on the other hand, were initially more focused on addressing theological disputes within the Islamic community. However, as they encountered the works of Muslim philosophers and their Greek sources, some Kalām theologians also began to adopt and adapt Greek philosophical concepts and methods in their work. For example, the Mu’tazila, a prominent Kalām theological school, was influenced by Greek philosophy in developing their rationalist approach to Islamic theology. They sought to establish the unity and justice of Allāh through rational arguments and borrowed concepts from Greek philosophy, such as the distinction between essence and attributes.146
Throughout Islamic history, there were instances of debates and dialogues between Muslim philosophers and Kalām theologians. These interactions allowed for an exchange of ideas and arguments, often leading to the refinement of their respective positions. For instance, AlGhazali, a notable Kalām theologian, engaged with the works of Muslim philosophers like Ibn Sina and Al-Fārābī in his book Tahafut al-Falāsifa. In this work, he critiqued their
positions on various theological and philosophical issues, leading to a more robust understanding of Islamic theology.
In some cases, Kalām theologians sought to synthesise and integrate the insights of Muslim philosophers into their theological frameworks. One notable example is the Ashʿarī school of Kalām theology, founded by Al-Ash’aris, which incorporated elements of the rationalist Mu’tazila approach and the teachings of Muslim philosophers. Al-Ashʿarī, in his work AlLuma’ (The Sparks), demonstrates the influence of Muslim philosophers by incorporating philosophical concepts, such as the distinction between the necessary, the possible, and the impossible, in his theological arguments. 147
The relationship between Muslim philosophers and Kalām theologians is characterised by shared intellectual traditions and the influence of one group on the other. While they had distinct methodologies and sources of influence, the interaction between Muslim philosophers and Kalām theologians allowed for a dynamic and fruitful exchange of ideas that enriched the Islamic intellectual tradition. The Kalām theologians and Muslim philosophers often use allegorical interpretations of the divine attributes to reconcile them with their rationalist and philosophical frameworks. This approach can lead to distortions and misrepresentations of the original meanings. For instance, Al-Ghazali, in his book Al-Iqtisād fi al-I’tiqad, argues for the metaphorical understanding of some of Allāh’s attributes, such as His “Hand” and “Face.” However, this approach is inconsistent with the teachings of the Prophet Muḥammad, who said, “Reflect upon the creation of Allāh, but do not reflect upon the essence of Allāh”. 148
Some Kalām theologians deny specific divine attributes to maintain the philosophical idea of divine simplicity. This approach contradicts the Qurʾān and the Sunnah, which explicitly affirm these attributes. As Allāh states in the Qurʾān: “And to Allāh belong the best names, so invoke Him by them”. 149 Ibn Abbas emphasised the importance of accepting the divine attributes as they are mentioned in the Qurʾān, saying, “Allāh is described as He described Himself without asking how”. 150 Kalām theologians and Muslim philosophers often prioritise
rational arguments over textual evidence, leading to potential conflicts with the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth. This approach contrasts Salaf’s methodology, which emphasises the primacy of revelation. Ibn Taymiyya criticised this approach, stating that the use of rational arguments should never undermine the apparent meanings of the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth. 151 Similarly, Imam Aḥmad warned against engaging in speculative theology. 152
In drawing this discourse to a close, it is abundantly clear that the names and attributes of Allāh constitute vital conduits through which we can foster a more intimate bond with our Creator, thereby deepening our comprehension and relationship with Him. As elucidated in the Qurʾān:
وَلَقَدْ خَلَقْنَا ٱلْإِنسَـٰنَ وَنَعْلَمُ مَا تُوَسْوِسُ بِهِۦ نَفْسُهُۥ ۖ وَنَحْنُ أَقْرَبُ إِلَيْهِ مِنْ حَبْلِ ٱلْوَرِيدِ ١٦
“We created man––We know what his soul whispers to him: We are closer to him than his jugular vein.”153
This profound verse underscores the inescapable intimacy that exists between Allāh and His creation. By engendering a profound awareness of Allāh’s attributes, we become acutely cognisant that our dependence lies not with any other entity; Allāh is limitless, ever-awake, possesses infinite wealth, and is eternally existent. As Prophet ʾIbrāhīm articulated in the Qurʾān:
لَآ أُحِبُّ ٱلْـَٔافِلِينَ
“…‘I do not love things that set’”.154
Our hearts, when they grasp the essence of Allāh, cannot be entrapped by the transience of this world, the allure of wealth, the reverence for idols, or other transient entities. The infinite bounties and mercy of Allāh are sufficient for us. This sentiment is encapsulated in the following verse:
ٱلَّذِينَ قَالَ لَهُمُ ٱلنَّاسُ إِنَّ ٱلنَّاسَ قَدْ جَمَعُوا۟ لَكُمْ فَٱخْشَوْهُمْ فَزَادَهُمْ إِيمَـٰنًۭا وَقَالُوا۟ حَسْبُنَا ٱللَّهُ وَنِعْمَ ٱلْوَكِيلُ ١٧٣
“Those whose faith only increased when people said, ‘Fear your enemy: they have amassed a great army against you,’ and who replied, ‘God is enough for us: He is the best protector’”.155
Therefore, our spiritual compass should continually guide us towards this unwavering truth – our reliance upon and devotion to Allāh alone. In doing so, we foster a relationship of deepseated faith and understanding, which culminates in the realisation of His all-encompassing sufficiency and guidance in our lives. An enriched comprehension of Allāh and His attributes infuses our lives with tranquillity and joy, a consequence of realising that we are under the aegis of an omnipotent Lord who cherishes us. As our deliberations have highlighted, Allāh’s uniqueness transcends any of His creations; no entity, be it human, Prophet, or angel, can stake a claim to His names or attributes. Equating Him with any of His creations amounts to Shirk, the act of polytheism, and anthropomorphism.
However, it must be acknowledged that His attributes, while beyond our full comprehension,
can be grasped at a fundamental level. This rudimentary understanding suffices in facilitating
the cultivation of a meaningful bond with the Most High. It allows us to appreciate His
majesty without crossing the sacred threshold into the realm of equating His divine attributes
with His creations. This nuanced understanding is vital in maintaining the sanctity of Tawḥīd,
which forms the cornerstone of our faith. Thus, as we journey towards a deeper connection
with Allāh, let us do so with reverence, humility, and a profound respect for His incomparable
nature.
Summary
Throughout the annals of history, the human spirit has embarked on a profound quest to unravel the mysteries of the Divine. This universal journey has given birth to diverse religious traditions, each unraveling unique dimensions of spiritual understanding.
At the core of Jewish spirituality stands the Shema, a powerful declaration of God’s singular nature, resonating through the ages: “Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one” (Deuteronomy 6:4). Similarly, Christianity, through the profound teachings of Jesus Christ, nurtures a direct and personal communion with God, urging believers towards purity of heart to perceive the Divine.
This tapestry of belief, spanning cultures and continents, converges on a singular truth: the existence of one, all-powerful God.
Enter the realm of Islam, where the Qurʾān unveils the attributes of Allāh in a symphony of divine revelation. He is introduced as “Allāh, there is no deity except Him, the Ever-Living, the Sustainer of [all] existence” (Qur’an 2:255). He is the Creator, the Merciful, the Wise— each name a facet of His infinite nature, beckoning believers into a deeper communion and understanding. Angels enact His will, and Prophets articulate His divine message, weaving a celestial tapestry of guidance and wisdom.
The Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, illuminated the path towards spiritual enlightenment, emphasizing the transformative power of reflecting upon Allāh’s names and attributes. This contemplation is not a mere intellectual exercise, but a gateway to embodying divine virtues in our daily lives, striving towards moral and spiritual excellence.
In the vast expanse of the cosmos, Allāh’s names and attributes stand as luminous pathways,
guiding us towards Him, reminding us of His imminent presence and our ultimate reliance on
His mercy and guidance. As we navigate this journey, humility and reverence become our
companions, deepening our connection to the Divine and inspiring a life imbued with
gratitude, kindness, and unwavering devotion.
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