Humanness of Prophets and Messengers
The terms Nabi (نبي, Prophet) and Rasūl (رسول, Messenger) refer to individuals chosen by
Allāh to convey His divine message to humanity. While both terms are often used
interchangeably, they possess distinct linguistic meanings in Arabic. The word Nabi is
derived from the Arabic root “أ-ب-ن) “n-b-a), which primarily means “to bring news” or “to
inform.” A Nabi (Prophet) is an individual who receives divine revelations from Allāh and is
commanded to inform his people of these revelations.
The role of a Nabi is to communicate the divine message, which may include teachings about
the fundamental principles of faith, moral and ethical guidance, or divine instructions related
to worship and societal matters. As such, a Nabi serves as a conduit for Allāh’s guidance,
ensuring that his people receive the knowledge and understanding necessary for their spiritual
growth and development.
The term Rasūl is derived from the Arabic root “ل- س- ر) “r-s-l), which primarily means “to send” or “to dispatch.” In Islamic theology, a Rasūl (Messenger) is an individual who is not only chosen by Allāh to receive divine revelations but is also entrusted with the specific mission of conveying these revelations to his people in the form of a new scripture or divine law (sharīʿa).
While all Rasūls are considered Prophets (Anbiyā’), not all Prophets are considered Messengers. The role of a Rasūl goes beyond merely conveying the divine message; it also involves establishing and implementing the new divine law within his community, serving as a leader and exemplar for his followers, and bearing witness to their adherence or defiance of the divine message.
The terms Nabi and Rasūl possess distinct linguistic meanings in Arabic, with the former referring to individuals who receive divine revelations and inform their people. In contrast, the latter refers to those entrusted explicitly with conveying a new scripture or divine law to their community. While these terms are often used interchangeably in Islamic discourse, it is essential to recognise their unique linguistic and theological nuances to gain a deeper understanding of the roles and responsibilities of these divinely appointed individuals. Ibn Taymiyya writes, “The messengers are those whom Allāh has sent with a divine law (sharīʿa) and a divine book (kitāb), and the prophets are those to whom Allāh has spoken without their being charged with conveying a book”.1
In simpler terms, Messengers are tasked with conveying a divine revelation and a new legal code, while Prophets receive divine inspiration but are not entrusted with a new legal code. The critical distinction between Prophets and Messengers lies in their mission. While both receive divine guidance from Allāh, Messengers are entrusted with a new legal code to convey to their people, whereas Prophets maintain and reinforce the message of previous Messengers.2 It is also worth noting that Messengership is not restricted to humans. Angels (malā’ika) are also tasked with delivering messages from Allāh to His prophets and humanity. In several instances, the Qurʾān refers to angels as messengers, highlighting their essential role in the communication between Allāh and His creation.
ٱلْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ فَاطِرِ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ جَاعِلِ ٱلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةِ رُسُلًا أُو۟لِىٓ أَجْنِحَةٍۢ مَّثْنَىٰ وَثُلَـٰثَ وَرُبَـٰعَ ۚ يَزِيدُ فِى ٱلْخَلْقِ مَا يَشَآءُ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ عَلَىٰ كُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ قَدِيرٌۭ ١
“Praise be to Allāh, the Creator of the heavens and the earth, who appoints the angels as messengers with wings – two, three, or four pairs. He adds to creation as He pleases: Allāh has power over everything”.3
The purpose of messengers can be understood in several key ways:
In communicating divine guidance, Messengers act as intermediaries between Allāh and humanity, conveying the divine message and instructions. They communicate Allāh’s will, laws, and commandments, ensuring people have access to the knowledge necessary for their spiritual and moral growth.
وَمَآ أَرْسَلْنَا مِن رَّسُولٍ إِلَّا بِلِسَانِ قَوْمِهِۦ لِيُبَيِّنَ لَهُمْ ۖ فَيُضِلُّ ٱللَّهُ مَن يَشَآءُ وَيَهْدِى مَن يَشَآءُ ۚ وَهُوَ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْحَكِيمُ ٤
“We sent no messenger except in the language of his people, to make things clear for them. Allāh leads whomever He wills astray and guides whomever He wills: He is the Almighty, the All-Wise”.4
Establishment of moral and ethical standards through the teachings and example of messengers, Allāh establishes the moral and ethical standards that He expects humanity to follow. These standards form the basis of a just and righteous society, promoting peace, harmony, and the well-being of its members.
لَّقَدْ كَانَ لَكُمْ فِى رَسُولِ ٱللَّهِ أُسْوَةٌ حَسَنَةٌۭ لِّمَن كَانَ يَرْجُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ وَٱلْيَوْمَ ٱلْـَٔاخِرَ وَذَكَرَ ٱللَّهَ كَثِيرًۭا ٢١
“You have an excellent model in the Messenger of Allāh, for all who put their hope in Allāh and the Last Day and remember Allāh often”.5
Role models for humanity, Messengers often exemplify the virtues and characteristics that Allāh desires in His followers. By emulating the messengers’ behaviour and adhering to their teachings, people can strive for spiritual growth and self-improvement.
أُو۟لَـٰٓئِكَ ٱلَّذِينَ هَدَى ٱللَّهُ ۖ فَبِهُدَىٰهُمُ ٱقْتَدِهْ ۗ
“These are the ones Allāh has guided, so follow their guidance”.6
Preservation of the divine message, Messengers help ensure that the divine message is preserved and transmitted accurately throughout generations. They often receive revelations in the scriptures, which serve as guidance and spiritual inspiration for subsequent generations.
۞ يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلرَّسُولُ بَلِّغْ مَآ أُنزِلَ إِلَيْكَ مِن رَّبِّكَ ۖ وَإِن لَّمْ تَفْعَلْ فَمَا بَلَّغْتَ رِسَالَتَهُۥ ۚ
“Messenger, proclaim everything that has been sent down to you from your Lord- if you do not, then you will not have communicated His message”.7
Clarification and correction, Messengers are sent to clarify misconceptions, correct erroneous beliefs, and guide people back to the true path when they have strayed. They provide a renewed understanding of the divine message and help maintain the purity of religious teachings.
وَأَنزَلْنَآ إِلَيْكَ ٱلذِّكْرَ لِتُبَيِّنَ لِلنَّاسِ مَا نُزِّلَ إِلَيْهِمْ وَلَعَلَّهُمْ يَتَفَكَّرُونَ ٤٤
“…We have sent down the Reminder to you [Prophet] so that you can make clear to people what was sent down to them and so that they may reflect”.8
Warning and deliverance of consequences, Messengers also serve to warn humanity of the consequences of disobeying Allāh’s commandments and rejecting His guidance. By heeding the messengers’ warnings, people have the opportunity to repent and rectify their actions, thus avoiding divine punishment.
أَوَلَمْ يَتَفَكَّرُوا۟ ۗ مَا بِصَاحِبِهِم مِّن جِنَّةٍ ۚ إِنْ هُوَ إِلَّا نَذِيرٌۭ مُّبِينٌ ١٨٤
“Do they not think? Their companion is not mad: he is a clear warner”.9
وَمَا نُرْسِلُ ٱلْمُرْسَلِينَ إِلَّا مُبَشِّرِينَ وَمُنذِرِينَ ۚ وَيُجَـٰدِلُ ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ بِٱلْبَـٰطِلِ لِيُدْحِضُوا۟ بِهِ ٱلْحَقَّ ۖ وَٱتَّخَذُوٓا۟ ءَايَـٰتِى وَمَآ أُنذِرُوا۟ هُزُوًۭا ٥٦
“We only send messengers to bring good news and to deliver warnings, but the disbelievers argue with false argument in order to defeat the truth, and they treat My signs and warnings as a joke”.10
These verses from the Qurʾān support the idea that messengers play a vital role in communicating divine guidance, establishing moral and ethical standards, serving as role models, preserving the divine message, clarifying and correcting misconceptions, and warning humanity of the consequences of disobedience.
Messengers play a pivotal role in the religious narrative by facilitating communication between Allāh and humanity, providing moral guidance and exemplification, preserving the divine message, clarifying misconceptions, and warning of the consequences of disobedience. Messengers help guide humanity towards spiritual and ethical growth through their teachings and example.
The role of prophets can be summarised in the following Ḥadīth:
“I have created My servants as one having a natural inclination to the worship of Allāh but it is Satan who turns them away from the right religion and he makes unlawful what has been declared lawful for them and he commands them to ascribe partnership with Me, although he has no justification for that. And verily, Allāh looked towards the people of the world and He showed hatred for the Arabs and the non-Arabs, but with the exception of some remnants from the People of the Book. And He (further) said: I have sent thee (the Holy Prophet) in order to put you to test and put (those to test) through you. And I sent the Book to you which cannot be washed away by water, so that you may recite it while in the state of wakefulness or sleep. Verily, Allāh commanded me to burn (kill) the Quraish. I said: My Lord, they would break my head (like the tearing) of bread, and Allāh said: You turn them out as they turned you out, you fight against them and We shall help you in this, you should spend and you would be conferred upon. You send an army and I would send an army five times greater than that. Fight against those who disobey you along with those who obey you”.11
From this Ḥadīth, we can see that their role is multifaceted: Messengers are a divine intervention, provide guidance, practical teaching, lessons, examples, balanced guidance, information on all of reality, and leadership at the moment. The Qurʾān lists multiple purposes for messengers also: to deliver the message12, to call to Allāh and Allāh’s conception of the good life and society13, to deliver Good news and warn14, to teach and purify15, to establish evidence16, and to lead the believers.17
The primary purpose of Prophets and Messengers is to guide humanity towards the path of righteousness and worship of the One True God, Allāh. They serve as exemplars of piety, embodying the principles of the divine revelations they receive. The Qurʾān explains:
وَلَقَدْ بَعَثْنَا فِى كُلِّ أُمَّةٍۢ رَّسُولًا أَنِ ٱعْبُدُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ وَٱجْتَنِبُوا۟ ٱلطَّـٰغُوتَ ۖ فَمِنْهُم مَّنْ هَدَى ٱللَّهُ وَمِنْهُم مَّنْ حَقَّتْ عَلَيْهِ ٱلضَّلَـٰلَةُ ۚ فَسِيرُوا۟ فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ فَٱنظُرُوا۟ كَيْفَ كَانَ عَـٰقِبَةُ ٱلْمُكَذِّبِينَ ٣٦
“We sent a messenger to every community, saying, ‘Worship Allāh and shun false Gods.’ Among them were some Allāh guided; misguidance took hold of others. So travel through the earth and see what was the fate of those who denied the truth”.18
As for their role, Prophets and Messengers are responsible for conveying the divine message, teaching their respective communities the principles of faith, and providing guidance on the practice of Islam. They also serve as moral and ethical role models for their followers.
The core responsibilities of Prophets and Messengers are fundamental to their divinely appointed roles:
To convey the divine message (tablīgh) without distortion or omission: Prophets and Messengers are entrusted with delivering Allāh’s message to their respective communities without altering, distorting, or withholding any part. This responsibility is crucial in ensuring divine guidance’s preservation and accurate transmission. The Qurʾān highlights this duty:
وَقَالَ ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ لَوْلَا نُزِّلَ عَلَيْهِ ٱلْقُرْءَانُ جُمْلَةًۭ وَٰحِدَةًۭ ۚ كَذَٰلِكَ لِنُثَبِّتَ بِهِۦ فُؤَادَكَ ۖ وَرَتَّلْنَـٰهُ تَرْتِيلًۭا ٣٢
وَلَا يَأْتُونَكَ بِمَثَلٍ إِلَّا جِئْنَـٰكَ بِٱلْحَقِّ وَأَحْسَنَ تَفْسِيرًا ٣٣
“And those who disbelieve say, ‘Why was the Qurʾān not revealed to him all at once?’ Thus (it is) that We may strengthen your heart thereby. And We have spaced it distinctly. And they do not come to you with an argument except that We bring you the truth and the best explanation”.19
To clarify the meaning of the divine message (bayān) and provide guidance on its interpretation: In addition to conveying the divine message, Prophets and Messengers are responsible for explaining its meanings, elaborating on its teachings, and guiding their followers in understanding and implementing its principles. This role is essential in preventing misinterpretations and misunderstandings of the divine message. The Qurʾān states:
وَأَنزَلْنَآ إِلَيْكَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ بِٱلْحَقِّ مُصَدِّقًۭا لِّمَا بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ مِنَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ وَمُهَيْمِنًا عَلَيْهِ ۖ فَٱحْكُم بَيْنَهُم بِمَآ أَنزَلَ ٱللَّهُ ۖ وَلَا تَتَّبِعْ أَهْوَآءَهُمْ عَمَّا جَآءَكَ مِنَ ٱلْحَقِّ ۚ لِكُلٍّۢ جَعَلْنَا مِنكُمْ شِرْعَةًۭ وَمِنْهَاجًۭا ۚ وَلَوْ شَآءَ ٱللَّهُ لَجَعَلَكُمْ أُمَّةًۭ وَٰحِدَةًۭ وَلَـٰكِن لِّيَبْلُوَكُمْ فِى مَآ ءَاتَىٰكُمْ ۖ فَٱسْتَبِقُوا۟ ٱلْخَيْرَٰتِ ۚ إِلَى ٱللَّهِ مَرْجِعُكُمْ جَمِيعًۭا فَيُنَبِّئُكُم بِمَا كُنتُمْ فِيهِ تَخْتَلِفُونَ ٤٨
“We sent to you [Muḥammad] the Scripture with the truth, confirming the Scriptures that came before it, and with final authority over them: so judge between them according to what Allāh has sent down. Do not follow their whims, which deviate from the truth that has come to you. We have assigned a law and a path to each of you. If Allāh had so willed, He would have made you one community, but He wanted to test you through that which He has given you, so race to do good: you will all return to Allāh and He will make clear to you the matters you differed about.”.20
To warn their people of the consequences of disbelief and disobedience (inzār): Prophets and Messengers serve as warners, cautioning their communities about the consequences of rejecting Allāh’s guidance and engaging in sinful behaviour. This responsibility is crucial in motivating people to adhere to the divine message and inspiring them to seek Allāh’s forgiveness and mercy. The Qurʾān emphasises this role:
لَقَدْ أَرْسَلْنَا نُوحًا إِلَىٰ قَوْمِهِۦ فَقَالَ يَـٰقَوْمِ ٱعْبُدُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ مَا لَكُم مِّنْ إِلَـٰهٍ غَيْرُهُۥٓ إِنِّىٓ أَخَافُ عَلَيْكُمْ عَذَابَ يَوْمٍ عَظِيمٍۢ ٥٩
“Indeed, We sent Nuh (Noah) to his people, and he said, ‘O my people, worship Allāh; you have no deity other than Him. Indeed, I fear for you the punishment of a tremendous Day”.21
To witness their people’s adherence or defiance of the divine message (shahāda): Prophets and Messengers witness their people’s actions, testifying to their obedience or disobedience of the divine message. This testimony will be given on the Day of Judgment as evidence of the Prophets’ and Messengers’ fulfilment of their responsibilities. The Qurʾān mentions this aspect:
وَكَذَٰلِكَ جَعَلْنَـٰكُمْ أُمَّةًۭ وَسَطًۭا لِّتَكُونُوا۟ شُهَدَآءَ عَلَى ٱلنَّاسِ وَيَكُونَ ٱلرَّسُولُ عَلَيْكُمْ شَهِيدًۭا ۗ وَمَا جَعَلْنَا ٱلْقِبْلَةَ ٱلَّتِى كُنتَ عَلَيْهَآ إِلَّا لِنَعْلَمَ مَن يَتَّبِعُ ٱلرَّسُولَ مِمَّن يَنقَلِبُ عَلَىٰ عَقِبَيْهِ ۚ وَإِن كَانَتْ لَكَبِيرَةً إِلَّا عَلَى ٱلَّذِينَ هَدَى ٱللَّهُ ۗ وَمَا كَانَ ٱللَّهُ لِيُضِيعَ إِيمَـٰنَكُمْ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ بِٱلنَّاسِ لَرَءُوفٌۭ رَّحِيمٌۭ ١٤٣
“We have made you [believers] into a just community, so that you may bear witness [to the truth] before others and so that the Messenger may bear witness [to it] before you. We only made the direction the one you used to face [Prophet] in order to distinguish those who follow the Messenger from those who turn on their heels: that test was hard, except for those Allāh has guided. Allāh would never let your faith go to waste [believers], for Allāh is most compassionate and most merciful towards people”.22
The core responsibilities of Prophets and Messengers are essential to their mission and play a vital role in guiding humanity towards the path of righteousness and the worship of Allāh. By fulfilling these responsibilities, Prophets and Messengers ensure the preservation, accurate transmission, and proper understanding of the divine message.
These core responsibilities also emphasise the message’s divine nature and the human role of the Prophets and Messengers in conveying it. Prophets and Messengers demonstrate their unwavering devotion to Allāh and commitment to guiding their people towards the truth by carrying out these duties.
Furthermore, these responsibilities highlight the interconnected relationship between divine guidance, prophetic teachings, and human agency. Prophets and Messengers are the conduits between the divine and the human realm, ensuring Allāh’s guidance is accessible, comprehensible, and applicable to their followers.
In addition to the core responsibilities mentioned earlier, Prophets and Messengers also serve as role models for their followers. Their actions, character, and adherence to the divine message exemplify the values and virtues that Muslims strive to embody daily. For instance, the Prophet Muḥammad is regarded as the ideal example for all Muslims, as the Qurʾān states:
لَّقَدْ كَانَ لَكُمْ فِى رَسُولِ ٱللَّهِ أُسْوَةٌ حَسَنَةٌۭ لِّمَن كَانَ يَرْجُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ وَٱلْيَوْمَ ٱلْـَٔاخِرَ وَذَكَرَ ٱللَّهَ كَثِيرًۭا ٢١
“Indeed, in the Messenger of Allāh, you have an excellent example for whoever has hope in Allāh and the Last Day and remembers Allāh often”.23
By understanding and appreciating the core responsibilities of Prophets and Messengers, believers can develop a deeper connection to their teachings and guidance and aspire to follow their example in their own lives. This, in turn, fosters a greater sense of piety, devotion, and commitment to the path of righteousness.
The core responsibilities of Prophets and Messengers are integral to their mission of conveying the divine message and guiding humanity. By fulfilling these duties, they ensure the preservation and accurate transmission of divine guidance while serving as role models and witnesses to their people’s actions. By understanding and appreciating these responsibilities, believers can strengthen their faith and deepen their commitment to the teachings of Islam. However, it is essential to understand that the base nature of messengers is human:
قُلْ إِنَّمَآ أَنَا۠ بَشَرٌۭ مِّثْلُكُمْ يُوحَىٰٓ إِلَىَّ أَنَّمَآ إِلَـٰهُكُمْ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ ۖ فَمَن كَانَ يَرْجُوا۟ لِقَآءَ رَبِّهِۦ فَلْيَعْمَلْ عَمَلًۭا صَـٰلِحًۭا وَلَا يُشْرِكْ بِعِبَادَةِ رَبِّهِۦٓ أَحَدًۢا ١١٠
“Say, ‘I am only a human being, like you, to whom it has been revealed that your God is One. Anyone who fears to meet his Lord should do good deeds and give no one a share in the worship due to his Lord”.24
قَالَتْ لَهُمْ رُسُلُهُمْ إِن نَّحْنُ إِلَّا بَشَرٌۭ مِّثْلُكُمْ وَلَـٰكِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَمُنُّ عَلَىٰ مَن يَشَآءُ مِنْ عِبَادِهِۦ ۖ وَمَا كَانَ لَنَآ أَن نَّأْتِيَكُم بِسُلْطَـٰنٍ إِلَّا بِإِذْنِ ٱللَّهِ ۚ وَعَلَى ٱللَّهِ فَلْيَتَوَكَّلِ ٱلْمُؤْمِنُونَ ١١
Their messengers answered, ‘True, we are only men like you, but Allāh favours whichever of His servants He chooses. We cannot bring you any proof unless Allāh permits it, so let the believers put all their trust in Him”.25
While also being human, messengers experience the aspects of human life, i.e., Eating, drinking, shopping, marriage, and children:
وَقَالَ ٱلْمَلَأُ مِن قَوْمِهِ ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ وَكَذَّبُوا۟ بِلِقَآءِ ٱلْـَٔاخِرَةِ وَأَتْرَفْنَـٰهُمْ فِى ٱلْحَيَوٰةِ ٱلدُّنْيَا مَا هَـٰذَآ إِلَّا بَشَرٌۭ مِّثْلُكُمْ يَأْكُلُ مِمَّا تَأْكُلُونَ مِنْهُ وَيَشْرَبُ مِمَّا تَشْرَبُونَ ٣٣
“But the leading disbelievers among his people, who denied the Meeting in the Hereafter, to whom We had granted ease and plenty in this life, said, ‘He is just a mortal like you- he eats what you eat and drinks what you drink”.26
وَقَالُوا۟ مَالِ هَـٰذَا ٱلرَّسُولِ يَأْكُلُ ٱلطَّعَامَ وَيَمْشِى فِى ٱلْأَسْوَاقِ ۙ لَوْلَآ أُنزِلَ إِلَيْهِ مَلَكٌۭ فَيَكُونَ مَعَهُۥ نَذِيرًا ٧
“They also say, ‘What sort of Messenger is this? He eats food and walks about in the marketplaces! Why has no angel been sent down to help him with his warnings?”27
وَلَقَدْ أَرْسَلْنَا رُسُلًۭا مِّن قَبْلِكَ وَجَعَلْنَا لَهُمْ أَزْوَٰجًۭا وَذُرِّيَّةًۭ ۚ وَمَا كَانَ لِرَسُولٍ أَن يَأْتِىَ بِـَٔايَةٍ إِلَّا بِإِذْنِ ٱللَّهِ ۗ لِكُلِّ أَجَلٍۢ كِتَابٌۭ ٣٨
“We sent messengers before you and gave them wives and offspring; no messenger was given the power to produce a miracle except with Allāh’s permission. There was a Scripture for every age”.28
Furthermore, in a Ḥadīth narrated by ʾĀ’isha, she expresses the nature of the Prophet Muḥammad, “The Messenger of Allāh was a man from among men; he would stitch his clothes, milk his sheep, and take care of himself”.29 In another Ḥadīth, the Prophet Muḥammad describes himself as having base human desire, “Anas ibn Malik reported that a woman named Umm Sulaim said to the Prophet, “O Messenger of Allāh, Allāh is not shy, to tell the truth. If she has a wet dream, does a woman have to perform a ghusl (ritual bath)?” The Prophet replied, “Yes if she sees the water (i.e., discharge).” Umm Sulaim then asked, “O Messenger of Allāh, does a woman have wet dreams?” He replied, “Yes, O Umm Sulaim, I am merely a man; I become happy like men and angry like men”.30
The Qurʾān also describes the Prophet as feeling sadness and anxiety:
إِنَّكَ لَا تَهْدِى مَنْ أَحْبَبْتَ وَلَـٰكِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَهْدِى مَن يَشَآءُ ۚ وَهُوَ أَعْلَمُ بِٱلْمُهْتَدِينَ ٥٦
“You [Prophet] cannot guide everyone you love to the truth; it is Allāh who guides whomever He will: He knows best those who will follow guidance”. 31
وَمَن كَفَرَ فَلَا يَحْزُنكَ كُفْرُهُۥٓ ۚ إِلَيْنَا مَرْجِعُهُمْ فَنُنَبِّئُهُم بِمَا عَمِلُوٓا۟ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ عَلِيمٌۢ بِذَاتِ ٱلصُّدُورِ ٢٣
“As for those who refuse to do this, do not let their refusal sadden you [Prophet]- they will return to Us, and We shall tell them what they have done: Allāh knows all that hearts contain”. 32 (Q. 31:23.)
Given the propensity for prophets to be of human nature, how can we trust that they have delivered the message to us correctly? Allāh protects the Prophets and Messengers in delivering the message. This concept, infallibility (ʿiṣmah), is significant to the Prophets and Messengers who convey Allāh’s divine guidance to humanity. Infallibility is a safeguard, ensuring the credibility and trustworthiness of the Prophets and Messengers in their divinely appointed roles.
Infallibility encompasses the protection of Prophets and Messengers from committing major sins, distorting or concealing the divine message, and persisting in minor sins. This protection is granted by Allāh, as Ibn Taymiyya explains, “The Prophets and Messengers are protected from committing major sins and from persisting in minor sins, as well as from concealing the divine message, distorting it, or deviating from it”.33
The scope of infallibility, however, is not limited to the Prophets and Messengers’ moral and ethical conduct. It also encompasses their accurate conveyance and interpretation of the divine revelations they receive. This ensures that the divine message remains uncorrupted and intact, as intended by Allāh. Infallibility ensures the following:
The ability to carry and deliver the message:
لَا تُحَرِّكْ بِهِۦ لِسَانَكَ لِتَعْجَلَ بِهِۦٓ ١٦
إِنَّ عَلَيْنَا جَمْعَهُۥ وَقُرْءَانَهُۥ ١٧
“[Prophet], do not rush your tongue in an attempt to hasten [your memorisation of] the Revelation: We shall make sure of its safe collection and recitation”. 34
وَلَوْ تَقَوَّلَ عَلَيْنَا بَعْضَ ٱلْأَقَاوِيلِ ٤٤
لَأَخَذْنَا مِنْهُ بِٱلْيَمِينِ ٤٥
ثُمَّ لَقَطَعْنَا مِنْهُ ٱلْوَتِينَ ٤٦
فَمَا مِنكُم مِّنْ أَحَدٍ عَنْهُ حَـٰجِزِينَ ٤٧
“if [the Prophet] had attributed some fabrication to Us, We would certainly have seized his right hand and cut off his lifeblood, and none of you could have defended him”.35
From the devil:
وَمَآ أَرْسَلْنَا مِن قَبْلِكَ مِن رَّسُولٍۢ وَلَا نَبِىٍّ إِلَّآ إِذَا تَمَنَّىٰٓ أَلْقَى ٱلشَّيْطَـٰنُ فِىٓ أُمْنِيَّتِهِۦ فَيَنسَخُ ٱللَّهُ مَا يُلْقِى ٱلشَّيْطَـٰنُ ثُمَّ يُحْكِمُ ٱللَّهُ ءَايَـٰتِهِۦ ۗ وَٱللَّهُ عَلِيمٌ حَكِيمٌۭ ٥٢
“We have never sent any messenger or Prophet before you [Muḥammad] into whose wishes Satan did not insinuate something, but Allāh removes what Satan insinuates and then Allāh affirms His message. Allāh is all knowing and wise”.36
While infallibility protects Prophets and Messengers from major sins and deliberate misguidance, it does not render them immune to human errors, forgetfulness, or minor sins. Prophets and Messengers are still human beings with human traits, so they may occasionally falter. However, when they make mistakes, Allāh guides them back to the right path and helps them learn from their errors. This, in turn, serves as a valuable lesson for their followers. For instance, the Qurʾān recounts the story of the Prophet Jonah, who left his people in anger without waiting for Allāh’s command:
وَذَا ٱلنُّونِ إِذ ذَّهَبَ مُغَـٰضِبًۭا فَظَنَّ أَن لَّن نَّقْدِرَ عَلَيْهِ فَنَادَىٰ فِى ٱلظُّلُمَـٰتِ أَن لَّآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّآ أَنتَ سُبْحَـٰنَكَ إِنِّى كُنتُ مِنَ ٱلظَّـٰلِمِينَ ٨٧
فَٱسْتَجَبْنَا لَهُۥ وَنَجَّيْنَـٰهُ مِنَ ٱلْغَمِّ ۚ وَكَذَٰلِكَ نُـۨجِى ٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ ٨٨
“And (mention) the man of the fish (Jonah), when he went off in anger and thought that We would not decree (anything) upon him. And he called out within the darkness, ‘There is no deity except You; exalted are You. Indeed, I have been of the wrongdoers.’ So, We responded to him and saved him from the distress. And thus, do We save the believers”.37
Adam’s sin in eating from the tree from which Allāh had forbidden him to eat. Allāh says,
وَقُلْنَا يَـٰٓـَٔادَمُ ٱسْكُنْ أَنتَ وَزَوْجُكَ ٱلْجَنَّةَ وَكُلَا مِنْهَا رَغَدًا حَيْثُ شِئْتُمَا وَلَا تَقْرَبَا هَـٰذِهِ ٱلشَّجَرَةَ فَتَكُونَا مِنَ ٱلظَّـٰلِمِينَ ٣٥
“We said, ‘Adam, live with your wife in this garden. Both of you eat freely there as you will, but do not go near this tree, or you will both become wrongdoers’”.38
When Noah prayed for his disbelieving son, Allāh rebuked him for doing so, and taught him that this person was not a member of his family, and that this prayer was not a righteous deed on his part. So Noah sought forgiveness from his Lord, repented, and returned to Allāh:
قَالَ رَبِّ إِنِّىٓ أَعُوذُ بِكَ أَنْ أَسْـَٔلَكَ مَا لَيْسَ لِى بِهِۦ عِلْمٌۭ ۖ وَإِلَّا تَغْفِرْ لِى وَتَرْحَمْنِىٓ أَكُن مِّنَ ٱلْخَـٰسِرِينَ ٤٧
“Noah said, ‘My Lord, I seek refuge with You from asking about things I know nothing about. If You do not forgive me and have mercy on me, I shall be one of the losers’”.39
When David realised that he had been too quick to judge without listening to what the second disputant had to say, he hastened to repent:
فاستغفر ربه وخر راكعا وأتاب
“… he sought forgiveness from his Lord, fell down on his knees, and turned to Allāh in repentance”.40
The same is true of the Prophet Muḥammad; the Prophet was once sitting with some of the leaders of his tribe, inviting them to Islam. A blind man who was already a Muslim came to the Prophet to ask him some questions regarding Islam. The Prophet ignored him, as he was busy delivering the message of Islam to the leaders of Quraysh, hoping they would come to Islam. Thereupon, the revelation came reproaching and reprimanding him:
عَبَسَ وَتَوَلَّىٰٓ ١
أَن جَآءَهُ ٱلْأَعْمَىٰ ٢
وَمَا يُدْرِيكَ لَعَلَّهُۥ يَزَّكَّىٰٓ ٣
“He frowned and turned away when the blind man came to him––for all you knew, [Prophet], he might have grown in spirit?” 41
The Prophet used to love to eat honey. Once he refused to consume any honey after his wives discouraged him to do so, as a result of a quarrel they were having among themselves. Allāh again reproached and reprimanded him:
يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلنَّبِىُّ لِمَ تُحَرِّمُ مَآ أَحَلَّ ٱللَّهُ لَكَ ۖ تَبْتَغِى مَرْضَاتَ أَزْوَٰجِكَ ۚ
“Prophet, why do you prohibit what Allāh has made lawful for you, in your desire to please your wives?” 42
At the time of an impending battle, some people who had hypocritically embraced Islam came and asked the Prophet to excuse them from participating in the campaign. The merciful Prophet accepted their excuse. Thereupon, revelation came down upon him again:
عَفَا ٱللَّهُ عَنكَ لِمَ أَذِنتَ لَهُمْ حَتَّىٰ يَتَبَيَّنَ لَكَ ٱلَّذِينَ صَدَقُوا۟ وَتَعْلَمَ ٱلْكَـٰذِبِينَ ٤٣
“Allāh may still pardon you! Why did you give them permission [to stay behind] before it became clear to you who was telling the truth and before you knew the liars?” 43
When some Muslims disagreed about the distribution of the spoils of war after the Battle of Badr, the Prophet was unsure how to handle the situation. Allāh then revealed the following verse:
يَسْـَٔلُونَكَ عَنِ ٱلْأَنفَالِ ۖ قُلِ ٱلْأَنفَالُ لِلَّهِ وَٱلرَّسُولِ ۖ فَٱتَّقُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ وَأَصْلِحُوا۟ ذَاتَ بَيْنِكُمْ ۖ وَأَطِيعُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ وَرَسُولَهُۥٓ إِن كُنتُم مُّؤْمِنِينَ ١
“They ask you, [Prophet], about the spoils. Say, ‘Any spoils of war belong to Allāh and the Messenger, so be mindful of Allāh and keep the peace among you. Obey Allāh and His Messenger if you are true believers’”.44
This verse reminds the Prophet and the believers that the spoils of war belong to Allāh and His Messenger, and they should be mindful of Allāh, maintain peace among themselves, and obey Allāh and His Messenger.
When the Prophet accepted the charitable offerings of some hypocrites, Allāh revealed the following verse to correct his decision:
وَمَا مَنَعَهُمْ أَن تُقْبَلَ مِنْهُمْ نَفَقَـٰتُهُمْ إِلَّآ أَنَّهُمْ كَفَرُوا۟ بِٱللَّهِ وَبِرَسُولِهِۦ وَلَا يَأْتُونَ ٱلصَّلَوٰةَ إِلَّا وَهُمْ كُسَالَىٰ وَلَا يُنفِقُونَ إِلَّا وَهُمْ كَـٰرِهُونَ ٥٤
“Take nothing from their earnings, [Prophet], for you would thereby only increase their wrongdoing and their disbelief. They will end up in Hell because they disbelieve”.45
In this verse, Allāh instructs the Prophet not to accept their charity, which would only increase their wrongdoing and disbelief. The hypocrites are destined for Hell due to their disbelief.
These examples illustrate that even the Prophet Muḥammad, as a human being, could make errors in judgment. However, Allāh, in His mercy and wisdom, provided guidance and correction through revelations, allowing the Prophet to learn and grow in his understanding and spirituality. These incidents also serve as valuable lessons for all believers.
How, then, do we follow prophets? The Prophet Muḥammad is reported to have said, “I have left you with two matters which will never lead you astray, as long as you hold to them: the Book of Allāh and the Sunna of his Prophet.”46
Sunna actions are an essential aspect of Islamic practice, serving as recommended actions
that contribute to devotion to Allāh. Understanding the various categories and terms
associated with sunna actions allows for a comprehensive examination of their role in Islamic
law and jurisprudence.
Mustaḥabb actions are those that are recommended but not obligatory. Examples include offering voluntary prayers and fasting on specific days.47 These actions are not mandatory, but their performance is encouraged to foster a deeper spiritual connection with Allāh.
Sunna mu’akkada refers to emphasised sunna actions that the Prophet Muḥammad
consistently practised and encouraged others to follow. These actions hold greater importance
compared to other sunna actions due to their strong association with the Prophet’s example.48
Ghair mu’akkada encompasses non-emphasised sunna actions that the Prophet Muḥammad
performed occasionally but did not stress as strongly as the Sunna mu’akkada.
49 While these
actions are still recommended, they hold less emphasis within Islamic practice.
The concept of sunna actions has its roots in the need to interpret and apply the teachings of the Qurʾān and the example of the Prophet Muḥammad in daily life. Early scholars of Islamic jurisprudence sought to systematise and categorise various actions based on their level of importance and legal consequence.50 The four Sunni schools of law and jurisprudence— Ḥanafī, Mālikī, Shafiʻi, and Ḥanbalī—differ in their understanding and application of sunna actions, which led to the development of diverse legal opinions and rulings.51 While the four Sunni schools of law all recognise the importance of sunna actions in Islamic law, they differ in their approach to categorising and interpreting these actions.
The Ḥanafī school differentiates between sunna actions based on the strength of the evidence supporting them. In this school, sunna actions are classified as either wājib (obligatory) or mustaḥabb (recommended). The school places a greater emphasis on textual sources, such as the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth, when determining the classification of a sunna action.52
For example, the Ḥanafī school considers the two units of prayer (rakʿahs) before the Fajr prayer as wājib. 53 The reasoning for this classification is based on the Ḥadīth, which states that the Prophet emphasised the importance of these two units.54 The Ḥanafī school interprets this emphasis as making the sunna action wājib.
The Mālikī school categorises sunna actions as either sunna mu’akkada (emphasised) or sunna ghair mu’akkada (non-emphasised). The school emphasises the practice of the people of Madina, as the Prophet’s example directly influenced them.55 This emphasis on the Madinan practice adds a unique perspective to the Mālikī school’s understanding of sunna actions.
For instance, the Mālikī school considers the two units of prayer before the Fajr prayer as sunna mu’akkada. The reasoning for this classification is based on the consistent practice of the Prophet and the people of Madina, who regularly performed these two units.56 In this case, the Mālikī school relies on the practice of the Prophet and the people of Madina as evidence for the importance of this sunna action.
The Shafiʻi school differentiates between sunna actions based on their level of emphasis, with sunna mu’akkada being more strongly encouraged than sunna ghair mu’akkada. 57 This distinction reflects the school’s focus on the textual evidence supporting these actions, such as the Ḥadīth, and their interpretation within the Shafiʻi legal framework.
In the case of the two units of prayer before the Fajr prayer, the Shafiʻi school also considers them sunna mu’akkada. The Shafiʻi school derives this classification from the Ḥadīth, which states that the Prophet consistently performed and encouraged these two units.58 The Shafiʻi school interprets this Ḥadīth as evidence for the strong emphasis on this sunna action.
The Ḥanbalī school similarly distinguishes between sunna mu’akkada and sunna ghair mu’akkada, focusing more on the textual evidence supporting these actions.59 However, the Ḥanbalī school also emphasises the importance of understanding the context in which these actions were performed by the Prophet and his Companions, leading to a more comprehensive approach to determining the categorisation of sunna actions.
For example, in the case of the two units of prayer before the Fajr prayer, the Ḥanbalī school agrees with the other schools in classifying them as sunna mu’akkada. This classification is derived from the Ḥadīth and the consistent practice of the Prophet.60 The Ḥanbalī school also considers the practice of the Companions, who followed the Prophet’s example in consistently performing these two units of prayer.
As demonstrated, the four Sunni schools differ in their approach to categorising Sunna actions based on their legal reasoning and the evidence they prioritise. The Ḥanafī school
places greater emphasis on textual sources, such as the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth, when determining the classification of a sunna action. The Mālikī school, on the other hand, places greater importance on the practice of the people of Madina, as the Prophet’s example directly influenced them. The Shafiʻi school distinguishes between sunna actions based on their level of emphasis, focusing on the textual evidence and its interpretation within the Shafiʻi legal framework. Finally, the Ḥanbalī school emphasises textual evidence and the context in which the Prophet and his Companions performed these actions.
These differences in legal reasoning and evidence can be attributed to each school’s unique methodologies and priorities. The Ḥanafī school is known for its rationalist approach, emphasising reason and analogical deduction (qiyās) in legal rulings. The Mālikī school, on the other hand, prioritises the Madinan practice, emphasising the consensus (ijmāʿ) of the people of Madina as a source of legal authority. The Shafiʻi school is characterised by its systematic approach to Islamic jurisprudence, seeking to harmonise various sources of evidence and legal reasoning. The Ḥanbalī school, meanwhile, is considered the most conservative of the four Sunni schools, emphasising strict adherence to the Qurʾān, Ḥadīth, and the understanding of the early generations of Muslims.
Scholars can gain valuable insights into the broader understanding and application of sunna actions within Islamic law and jurisprudence by examining the differences in legal reasoning and evidence among the four Sunni schools. The concept of sunna actions serves as a bridge between the Qurʾān and the practical application of Islamic teachings in a Muslim’s daily life. Sunna’s actions guide engaging in various aspects of worship and ethical conduct, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of Islamic law and jurisprudence.61 By engaging in sunna actions, Muslims adhere to the example set by the Prophet and strengthen their connection with Allāh, the Most High.
Sunna prayers, also known as nawāfil, are essential in Islamic practice. They serve as a means to draw closer to Allāh, earn additional rewards, and compensate for any deficiencies in the performance of obligatory prayers.62 Examples of sunna prayers include the two units of prayer before the Fajr prayer, four units before the Ẓuhr prayer, and two units after the
Maghrib prayer.63 These prayers demonstrate the practical application of sunna actions in a
Muslim’s routine practice and dedication to Allāh, the Most High.
In Islamic law, it is crucial to differentiate between sunna and farḍ acts. Farḍ acts are obligatory and must be performed by Muslims, such as the five daily prayers and fasting during the month of Ramaḍān. In contrast, sunna acts are recommended but not obligatory, allowing Muslims to engage in other worship and devotion.64 Understanding this distinction enables Muslims to prioritise their religious obligations while also recognising the importance of sunna actions in fostering spiritual growth. Thus, the sunna acts must not be confused with the compulsory acts, nor should they be seen as acts that venerate the Prophet. Instead, they are optional acts of worship which the Prophet approved.
In conclusion, it is essential to remember that Prophets and Messengers were human beings, and divinity cannot be ascribed to them. Their guidance and knowledge were granted to them by Allāh, and it was not necessarily their inherent characteristics that led to their selection. Allāh, in His infinite wisdom, bestowed prophethood upon those whom He chose for reasons known only to Him. Prophets and Messengers were assigned specific purposes and tasks, and their primary responsibility was to convey the divine message to their respective communities. Once they fulfilled their duties and delivered the message, their roles came to an end.
By examining their lives, as depicted in the Qurʾān and Ḥadīth, we can appreciate the humanity of the Prophets and Messengers, as well as their dedication to fulfilling their divine missions. Their humility, repentance, and unwavering faith in Allāh’s mercy serve as valuable lessons and exemplars for all believers. This understanding underscores the importance of recognizing their human nature and the unique role they played in conveying the divine message, while also emphasizing that they were not divine beings themselves. The discussions above highlight that Prophets and Messengers are not divine beings and are not worthy of worship. This understanding is crucial in Islam, as the faith emphasises the worship of Allāh alone, without associating any partners or intermediaries. Prophets and Messengers were chosen by Allāh to convey and explain His divine message, guiding
humanity towards the right path. Their fundamental role was to act as conduits for the divine revelation and exemplify the teachings they were entrusted with. The Qurʾān repeatedly emphasises that worship should be directed solely to Allāh:
قُلْ إِنَّمَآ أَنَا۠ بَشَرٌۭ مِّثْلُكُمْ يُوحَىٰٓ إِلَىَّ أَنَّمَآ إِلَـٰهُكُمْ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ ۖ فَمَن كَانَ يَرْجُوا۟ لِقَآءَ رَبِّهِۦ فَلْيَعْمَلْ عَمَلًۭا صَـٰلِحًۭا وَلَا يُشْرِكْ بِعِبَادَةِ رَبِّهِۦٓ أَحَدًۢا ١١٠
“Say, ‘I am only a human being like you, to whom it has been revealed that your God is One. Whoever hopes to meet his Lord should do good deeds and worship no one else besides his Lord’”.65
This verse clearly establishes that even the Prophet Muḥammad, who is the final and most revered Prophet in Islam, is a human being like the rest of humanity, and that the primary purpose of his prophethood was to deliver the message of monotheism.
Our relationship with the Prophets and Messengers should be one of emulation and learning. Their lives, actions, and teachings serve as examples for us to follow in our quest to be obedient to Allāh. The Qurʾān states:
لَّقَدْ كَانَ لَكُمْ فِى رَسُولِ ٱللَّهِ أُسْوَةٌ حَسَنَةٌۭ لِّمَن كَانَ يَرْجُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ وَٱلْيَوْمَ ٱلْـَٔاخِرَ وَذَكَرَ ٱللَّهَ كَثِيرًۭا ٢١
“There is a good example for you in the Messenger of Allāh, for anyone who seeks Allāh and the Last Day and remembers Allāh frequently”.66
By emulating the Prophets and Messengers and adhering to their teachings, we can develop a stronger connection with Allāh and strive to fulfil His commandments. This relationship is one of learning, admiration, and respect, but it is essential to remember that worship belongs exclusively to Allāh, and we should not elevate Prophets and Messengers to the status of divinity. Excessively praising the Prophet or any other Prophets and Messengers can open the doors of shirk, which is the act of associating partners with Allāh in worship. The Qurʾān warns against excessive veneration of religious figures, including Jesus:
وَلَا تَقُولُوا۟ ثَلَـٰثَةٌ ۚ ٱنتَهُوا۟ خَيْرًۭا لَّكُمْ ۚ إِنَّمَا ٱللَّهُ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ ۖ سُبْحَـٰنَهُۥٓ أَن يَكُونَ لَهُۥ وَلَدٌۭ ۘ
“Do not say, ‘Three’; it is better for you to stop. Your God is only One, Allāh. He is too exalted to have a son”.67
This verse cautions against associating partners with Allāh and emphasises the oneness of Allāh. The Prophet Muḥammad also warned against excessive praise and veneration of himself. In a well-known ḥadīth, he said, “Do not exaggerate in praising me as the Christians praised the son of Mary, for I am only a slave. So, call me the Slave of Allāh and His Messenger”.68 This ḥadīth demonstrates the Prophet’s humility and his insistence that he should not be elevated to a divine status. He directs his followers to focus their devotion on Allāh and to remember that he is a servant of Allāh and His Messenger.
Excessive praise and veneration of the Prophet or any other religious figure can lead to the
distortion of Islamic teachings and the establishment of incorrect beliefs and practices. This
may result in people directing their worship towards the Prophets and invoking them instead of Allah which is a clear violation of the principle of tawḥīd.
To avoid falling into shirk, it is important for Muslims to maintain a balance in their admiration and respect for the Prophets and Messengers, recognising them as exemplary human beings who conveyed the divine message but never elevating them to a divine status or directing worship towards them. Worship, invoking, and devotion should be reserved solely for Allāh, who is the ultimate source of guidance and knowledge.
Summary
The Islamic tradition recognizes two special roles in communicating divine guidance: Prophets (Nabi) and Messengers (Rasūl). While both are chosen by Allah to convey His messages, they have distinct responsibilities and scope of action. A Prophet reinforces existing divine laws, while a Messenger brings new scriptures or legal codes.
Prophets and Messengers act as intermediaries between Allah and humanity, guiding us toward righteousness and moral excellence. The Qur’an highlights their importance, stating: “We sent no messenger except in the language of his people, to make things clear for them” (Q. 14:4) and “You have an excellent model in the Messenger of Allah” (Q. 33:21).
Despite their divine mission, these individuals were not without flaws or errors. They experienced the full spectrum of human emotions and challenges, making them relatable figures. Yet, their unique position came with divine protection, ensuring the accuracy and integrity of their message.
Infallibility, or ‘ismah, safeguarded them from major sins and deliberate misguidance, but they were not exempt from human errors or minor sins. Allah’s guidance corrected their missteps, turning them into teachable moments for all believers.
These Prophets and Messengers were not divine beings; they were human, chosen for a divine purpose. They serve as exemplars of virtue and commitment to Allah’s path. As the Qur’an encourages, “There is a good example for you in the Messenger of Allah” (Q. 33:21), reminding us to follow their lead and devote ourselves solely to Allah.
In their humanity and through their divine mission, these remarkable figures teach us the
importance of humility, perseverance, and unwavering faith. They illuminate the path
toward spiritual growth, urging us to embrace divine guidance and strive for a closer
connection with Allah.
References:
Al-Bukhārī, Muḥammad bin Ismāʿīl. 1981. Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī. Beirut: Dār Ibn Kathīr. Al-Dardīr, Aḥmad bin Muḥammad. 2006. Al-Sharḥ al-Ṣaghīr. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub alʿIlmīyah. Al-Kamālī, Muḥammad Hāshim. 2006. Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society. Al-Nawawī, Yaḥyā bin Sharaf. 1996. Al-Majmūʿ Sharḥ al-Muhadhdhab. Beirut: Dār al-Fikr. Al-Shāṭibī, Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm. 2003. Al-Muwāfaqāt fī Uṣūl al-Sharīʿa. Beirut: Dār Ibn Ḥazm. Al-Tirmidhī, Muḥammad bin ʿĪsā. 1999. Sunan al-Tirmidhī. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub alʿIlmīyah. Ibn Qudāma, Muwaffaq al-Dīn. 1997. Al-Mughnī. Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmīyah. Ibn Taymiyya, Taqī al-Dīn Aḥmad. Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā. Edited by ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-ʿAsīmī. Riyadh: Mawāqit al-Turāth, 2005. Ibn Taymiyya, Taqī al-Dīn Aḥmad. Minhāj al-Sunnah al-Nabawiyyah. Edited by Muḥammad Rashād Sālim. Riyadh: Dār al-ʿĀṣimah, 2008. Ibn ʿĀbidīn, Muḥammad Amīn. 1994. Radd al-Muḥtār ʿalā al-Durr al-Mukhtār. Beirut: Dār al-Fikr.
References:
1 Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā, 4:108, 2 Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā, 4:108, 3 Q.
35:1, 4 Q. 14:4, 5 Q. 33:21, 6 Q. 6:90, 7 Q. 5:67, 8 Q. 16:44, 9 Q. 7:184, 10
Q. 18:56, 11 Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, 2865a, 12 Q. 29:45; 2:151; 3:20, 13 Q.
16:36; 16:125, 14 Q. 18:56;
24:55, 15 Q. 16:44; 2:257; 62:2, 16 Q. 4:165; 20:134; 67:8-11, 17 Q. 5:48;
5:44; 3:31, 18 Q. 16:36, 19 Q. 25:32-33, 20 Q. 5:48, 21 Q. 7:59, 22
Q. 2:143, 23 Q. 33:21, 24 Q. 18:110, 25 Q. 14:11, 26 Q. 23:33, 27 Q. 25:7, 28
Q. 13:38, 29 Musnad Aḥmad, 25662, 30 Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, 607,
31 Q. 28:56, 32 Q. 31:23, 33 Minhāj al-Sunnah al-Nabawiyya, 1:219, 34
Q. 75:16-17, 35 Q. 69:44-48, 36 Q. 22:52, 37 Q. 21:87-88, 38 Q. 2:35, 39 Q.
11:47, 40 Q. 38:24, 41 Q. 80:1-3, 42 Q. 66:1, 43 Q. 9:43, 44 Q. 8:1, 45 Q. 9:54,
46 al-Muwaṭṭa’ 1661, 47 Al-Kamālī 2006, 41 48 Radd
al-Muḥtār, 2:11, 49 Radd al-Muḥtār, 2:11, 50 Al-Muwāfaqāt fī
Uṣūl al-Sharīʿa, 27, 51 Al-Kamālī 2006, 42, 52 Radd
al-Muḥtār, 2:12, 53 Radd al-Muḥtār, 2:12, 54 Sunan
al-Tirmidhī, 414, 55 Al-Sharḥ al-Ṣaghīr, 1:111, 56 Al-Sharḥ
al-Ṣaghīr, 1:111, 57 Al-Majmūʿ Sharḥ al-Muhadhdhab, 1:32, 58 Sunan
al-Tirmidhī, 414, 59 Al-Mughnī, 1:79, 60 Sunan al-Tirmidhī,
414, 61 Al-Kamālī 2006, 44, 62 Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 1863, 63 Sunan
al-Tirmidhī, 415, 64 Al-Kamālī 2006, 41, 65 Q. 18:110, 66 Q.
33:21, 67 Q. 4:171, 68 Ṣaḥīḥ al–Bukhārī, 654,