The birth of the Prophet Muḥammad is not documented in the Six Books of ḥadīth. However, it is widely accepted that he was born on a Monday in the ‘Year of the Elephant’. Ibn Kathīr (d. 774) cites eight varying opinions on the date of the Prophet’s birth: 2nd Rabīʿ al-Awwal (held by Abū Maʿshar al-Sindī, Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, al-Wāqidī), 8th of Rabīʿ al-Awwal (held by Ibn Ḥazm, al-Zuhrī, Muḥammad b. Jubayr b. Muṭʿim, Ibn Diḥya), 10th of Rabīʿ al-Awwal (held by Ibn ʿAsākir, Abū Jaʿfar al-Bāqir, al-Shaʿbī), 12th of Rabīʿ al-Awwal (held by Ibn Isḥāq), 17th of Rabīʿ al-Awwal (held by Shiʾite scholars), 22nd of Rabīʿ al-Awwal (an alternate opinion of Ibn Ḥazm), in Ramaḍān (held by al-Zubayr b. al-Bakkār), 12th of Ramaḍān (held by Ibn ʿAsākir).

The first records of the observation of Muḥammad’s birth as a celebration day can be traced back to the late 6th/12th century when a special public celebration was arranged in Mecca (Ibn Djubayr, 113). It was al-Khayzuran, the mother of Harun al-Rashid, who first transformed the Prophet’s birthplace from a humble dwelling-house to a place of prayer, attracting an increasing number of visitors (Ibn Djubayr, Rihla, 114, 163; Snouck Hurgronje, 27). The early Mawlid celebrations included elements of Sufi influence, such as animal sacrifices, torchlight processions, public sermons, and a feast (Schussman, 1998). According to the hypothesis of Nico Kaptein, the Mawlid was initiated by the Fāṭimids (Katz, 2007). The earliest mention of the Mawlid celebrations in any historical work comes from the writings of Jamāl al-Dīn Ibn al-Ma’mūn, who died in 587 AH/1192 CE. Annemarie Schimmel asserts that the tendency to celebrate the memory of the Prophet’s birthday on a larger and more festive scale emerged first in Egypt during the Fāṭimid rule (Schimmel, 1985). The Egyptian historian Al-Maqrīzī (d. 1442) describes one celebration held in 1122, attended mainly by scholars and the religious establishment, where sermons were given, sweets were distributed, and the poorly received alms. Al-Maqrīzī also documented the celebration of various birthdays by Shiʿites, including those of the Prophet, ʿAli, al-Ḥasan, al-Ḥusayn, Fāṭimah, and the current ruler. He also mentioned that the Faṭimid rulers used to have several festive seasons throughout the year, including the Mawlid of the Prophet (Al-Maqrīzī, al-Khiṭaṭ wal-Āthār).

Over time, Mawlid celebrations evolved to include various practices and customs, reflecting the Muslim world’s diverse cultural and religious influences. Despite minor differences in time and place, these celebrations have maintained the same general features. Laylat al-Mawlid, Mawlid al-Nabawi, Mawlid, Mawlid al-Nabi al-Sharīf, and Eid Milad-un-Nabi. The Mawlid holds great significance for many Muslims, as it allows them to express their love and reverence for the Prophet Muḥammad while engaging in acts of devotion, charity, and communal bonding.

Despite the dubious origins of the mawlid celebration, scholars from the Sunni tradition have defended and promoted it. Al-Suyuti (d. 1505) argued that celebrating the Mawlid is permissible and praiseworthy, as it fosters a love for the Prophet and promotes unity among Muslims (Husn al-Maqsid fi Amal al-Mawlid). He reasoned that any act that brings Muslims closer to the Prophet and encourages them to follow his teachings is virtuous as long as it does not contradict Islamic teachings. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d. 1449) endorsed the practice, asserting (Fatḥ al-Bārī). He maintained that the Mawlid could serve as an opportunity for Muslims to reflect on the Prophet’s life and teachings and strengthen their religious commitment.

Conversely, scholars such as Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328) and Ibn al-Qayyim (d. 1350) have censured the practice, arguing that it constitutes an innovation (bid) and deviates from authentic Islamic teachings (Al-Sabuni, 1992). They contend that the Qurʾān or the Hadith does not support the Mawlid and is an illegitimate addition to Islamic tradition. Ibn Taymiyya ruled that it was a reprehensible devotional innovation and criticised those who celebrated the Mawlid out of a desire to imitate the Christian celebration of Jesus’s birthday (Majmu‘ Fatāwa, 18:367). Taj al-Din al-Fakihani (d. 1331), an Egyptian Maliki, considered Mawlid a blameworthy innovation that was either makruh or haram (Kaptein, 1993). He argued that there was no basis for the celebration in the Qurʾān or Sunnah and that the early scholars of the umma did not observe it. Al-Fakihani described the Mawlid as a “bidʿa (innovation)” introduced by idolators and a delight to which gluttons abandon themselves” (Mawrid Fī ʿAmal al-Mawlid).

Similarly, fellow Egyptian Maliki Ibn al-Haj al-Abdari also considered Mawlid a blameworthy innovation that was either disliked or prohibited (Katz, 2007). He noted that the Salaf never practised the celebration (Katz, 2007). The Maliki scholar Al-Shāṭibī considered Mawlid an illegitimate innovation (Katz, 2007). The Andalusian jurist Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Haffar (d. 1408) opposed Mawlid, noting that had the Sahaba celebrated it, its exact date would not be a matter of uncertainty (Katz, 2007).

In recent years, academic discourse on the Mawlid has focused on the practice’s historical, theological, and cultural dimensions. Scholars such as Jonathan A.C. Brown (2011) and Azyumardi Azra (2004) have examined the historical development of the Mawlid and its influence on Islamic thought and culture. These studies highlight how the Mawlid has shaped religious expression and identity in various Muslim societies.

Research has explored how the Mawlid has influenced Islamic thought and contributed to various theological and philosophical perspectives. For example, scholars such as R. Michael Feener (2001) have examined the role of the Mawlid in the evolution of Islamic mysticism (Sufism) and the veneration of saints, demonstrating how the celebration has contributed to the growth and diversification of Islamic spiritual practices. The Mawlid has played a significant role in shaping Islamic culture, particularly in the art realm. Scholars such as Kristina Nelson (2002) have analysed the development of Mawlid-related poetry, music, and other forms of artistic expression, highlighting how the celebration has contributed to the richness and diversity of Islamic cultural heritage.

Additionally, academic research has explored how the celebration of Mawlid has evolved and how different Muslim communities have adapted the practice to their cultural contexts (Geaves, 2000). For example, scholars such as Usha Sanyal (1996) and Martin Van Bruinessen (1996) have analysed the role of the Mawlid in shaping devotional practices and religious expression in South Asia and Indonesia, respectively. These studies demonstrate Mawlid practices’ diversity and significance in various cultural and historical settings.

The practice of Mawlid has been a subject of disagreement among Muslim scholars and religious authorities. The disputes can be broadly categorised into three main areas:

Some scholars argue that the celebration is a legitimate expression of love and reverence for the Prophet Muḥammad and is rooted in the authentic Islamic tradition (Siddiqi, 1995). They cite examples of the Companions of the Prophet celebrating his birth and argue that the Mawlid serves as a reminder of the importance of the Prophet’s life and teachings. Others consider the Mawlid an innovation and say Islamic teachings do not sanction it (Iqtida’ al-sirāṭ al-mustaqīm). These scholars maintain that the Prophet Muḥammad and his Companions did not celebrate his birthday, and the practice was introduced later by various Muslim rulers and societies. As such, they argue that the celebration is an illegitimate addition to Islamic tradition.

Some scholars contend that the historical origins of the Mawlid need to be more well-established and that the practice needs a clear precedent in the early Islamic period. They argue that the Mawlid emerged due to the influence of local customs and cultural practices rather than being rooted in the authentic Islamic tradition (Geaves, 2000).

In summary, the Mawlid has no basis in the Qurʾān and Sunna; its origin is found in later ʼIsmāʻīlī Shīʿa festivals during the Fāṭimid dynasty. Furthermore, as has been demonstrated, these festivals in the Fāṭimid dynasty were not unique to the Mawlid; they made festivals out of any possible date that could be considered auspicious. So to argue as some do that the celebration of the Mawlid is grounded within the Qurʾān and Sunna and that such festivals bring one closer to Allah is to innovate in the religion. Bidʿa refers to any newly invented practice in religion that is not based on the Qurʾān, Sunnah, or the consensus of the companions of the Prophet. The celebration of the Mawlid is a bidʿa because it is a relatively recent development in Islamic history and has no basis in the practice of the Prophet or his companions. Kaptein (1993) summarises some valuable points when considering the legitimacy of Mawlid: originally a Shiʻa celebration that started 500 years after the death of the Prophet, the Fāṭimids did not always celebrate it on the same date, the Fāṭimids used the festival to emphasis their kinship with ahl al-Bayt was emphasised, to cultivate loyalty to the Fāṭimid caliphate. Beyond these points, as Ibn Kathīr raised, there are over eight different opinions on when the birth took place. Thus, it is clear the origins of the celebration were political displays, which have become displays cultural displays of Muslim identity and ‘veneration’. However, this course leads to excessive veneration of the Prophet, and as Ibn Taymiyya argued, is what the Christians did with Jesus. God states in the Qurʾān,

يَـٰٓأَهْلَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ لَا تَغْلُوا۟ فِى دِينِكُمْ وَلَا تَقُولُوا۟ عَلَى ٱللَّهِ إِلَّا ٱلْحَقَّ ۚ إِنَّمَا ٱلْمَسِيحُ عِيسَى ٱبْنُ مَرْيَمَ رَسُولُ ٱللَّهِ وَكَلِمَتُهُۥٓ أَلْقَىٰهَآ إِلَىٰ مَرْيَمَ وَرُوحٌۭ مِّنْهُ ۖ فَـَٔامِنُوا۟ بِٱللَّهِ وَرُسُلِهِۦ ۖ وَلَا تَقُولُوا۟ ثَلَـٰثَةٌ ۚ ٱنتَهُوا۟ خَيْرًۭا لَّكُمْ ۚ إِنَّمَا ٱللَّهُ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ ۖ سُبْحَـٰنَهُۥٓ أَن يَكُونَ لَهُۥ وَلَدٌۭ ۘ لَّهُۥ مَا فِى ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَمَا فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ ۗ وَكَفَىٰ بِٱللَّهِ وَكِيلًۭا ١٧١

“People of the Book, do not go to excess in your religion and do not say anything about God except the truth: the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, was nothing more than a messenger of God, His word, directed to Mary, a spirit from Him. So believe in God and His messengers and do not speak of a ‘Trinity’- stop [this], that is better for you- God is only one God, He is far above having a son, everything in the heavens and earth belongs to Him, and He is the best one to trust” (Q. 4:171).

ʿUmar narrated that he heard the Prophet saying, “Do not exaggerate in praising me as the Christians praised the son of Mary, for I am only a Slave. So, call me the Slave of Allah and His Apostle” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 3445).

Ultimately, celebrating the Mawlid is a stepping stone to shirk as it is a means by which Muslims follow the Christians in how they raised Jesus above his status, but they raise Muḥammad above his. Arguments which argue it is done out of love for the Prophet are genuinely misplaced. The Prophet said, He also said, “Beware of exaggeration in the religion, for those who came before you perished because of their exaggeration in religion” (Sunan al-Nasā’ī, 3057). The Prophet also said, “The evilest matters in religion are those that are newly invented, for every newly invented matter is an innovation, every innovation is misguidance, and every misguidance is in the Hellfire” (Sunan al-Nasā’ī, 1578). God says on the topic,

وَمَن يُشَاقِقِ ٱلرَّسُولَ مِنۢ بَعْدِ مَا تَبَيَّنَ لَهُ ٱلْهُدَىٰ وَيَتَّبِعْ غَيْرَ سَبِيلِ ٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ نُوَلِّهِۦ مَا تَوَلَّىٰ وَنُصْلِهِۦ جَهَنَّمَ ۖ وَسَآءَتْ مَصِيرًا ١١٥

If anyone opposes the Messenger, after guidance has been made clear to him, and follows a path other than that of the believers, We shall leave him on his chosen path- We shall burn him in Hell, an evil destination. (Q. 4:115).

So how, then, can we follow the innovation of Mawlid and claim that it is out of love for the Prophet when Allah and His Messenger expressly prohibited innovation? Loving the Prophet is a duty for every Muslim. However, this does not mean that one should introduce new practices into the religion, as these are reprehensible innovations. The best way to demonstrate love for the Prophet is to obey and follow him; this is the most excellent form of love. Keeping the Prophet’s Sunna alive and avoiding actions that go against it is also an expression of love for him. Islam is based on two principles: sincere intentions and following the Prophet.

ʻUmar ibn al-Khattab reported that the Messenger of Allah said:

“Verily, deeds are only with intentions. Verily, every person will have only what they intended. Whoever emigrated to Allah and his Messenger, his emigration is for Allah and his Messenger. Whoever emigrated to get something in the world or to marry a woman, his emigration is for that to which he emigrated” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 54).

وَمَن يُطِعِ ٱللَّهَ وَٱلرَّسُولَ فَأُو۟لَـٰٓئِكَ مَعَ ٱلَّذِينَ أَنْعَمَ ٱللَّهُ عَلَيْهِم مِّنَ ٱلنَّبِيِّـۧنَ وَٱلصِّدِّيقِينَ وَٱلشُّهَدَآءِ وَٱلصَّـٰلِحِينَ ۚ وَحَسُنَ أُو۟لَـٰٓئِكَ رَفِيقًۭا ٦٩

“Whoever obeys God and the Messenger will be among those He has blessed: the messengers, the truthful, those who bear witness to the truth, and the righteous- what excellent companions these are!” (Q. 4:69).

بَلَىٰ مَنْ أَسْلَمَ وَجْهَهُۥ لِلَّهِ وَهُوَ مُحْسِنٌۭ فَلَهُۥٓ أَجْرُهُۥ عِندَ رَبِّهِۦ وَلَا خَوْفٌ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا هُمْ يَحْزَنُونَ ١١٢

“In fact, any who direct themselves wholly to God and do good will have their reward with their Lord: no fear for them, nor will they grieve” (Q. 2:112).

This means being sincere towards God and following the Messenger by implementing his Sunna. Celebrating the Prophet’s birthday and similar practices are considered innovations and are not permissible.

Furthermore, the date on which Mawlid is celebrated (12th of Rabīʿ al-Awwal) is also the date most scholars consider the date the Prophet passed away. Although, the exact date of the Prophet’s death is disputed. There are different opinions regarding the month and day of his passing. Most scholars believe that he passed away on the 12th of Rabīʿ al-Awwal. Al-Khwārizmī held the view that the Prophet died on the 1st of Rabīʿ al-Awwal. Ibn al-Kalbi and Abu Makhnaf believed that he died on the 2nd of Rabīʿ al-Awwal. Despite the differing opinions, the most widely accepted view is that the Prophet passed away on the 12th of Rabīʿ al-Awwal in the year 11 AH. Thus, the celebration of Mawlid, which occurs on the 12th of Rabīʿ al-Awwal, is a celebration on the day of his death; of all the opinions regarding the date, the 12th of Rabīʿ al-Awwal is the weakest and was supported by only a later historian.

Consequently, it is strange that people would argue they love the Prophet and follow the weakest historical position of his birth and celebrate on this day despite it being all most unanimously the date of the greatest tragedy which befell the Muslims, i.e., the death of the Prophet. In doing so, these individuals disrespect the Prophet and his legacy by inadvertently celebrating his death and causing it, insofar as they are destroying the Sunna, promoting bidʿa and creating doorways to shirk.

وَمِنَ ٱلنَّاسِ مَن يَتَّخِذُ مِن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ أَندَادًۭا يُحِبُّونَهُمْ كَحُبِّ ٱللَّهِ ۖ وَٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓا۟ أَشَدُّ حُبًّۭا لِّلَّهِ ۗ وَلَوْ يَرَى ٱلَّذِينَ ظَلَمُوٓا۟ إِذْ يَرَوْنَ ٱلْعَذَابَ أَنَّ ٱلْقُوَّةَ لِلَّهِ جَمِيعًۭا وَأَنَّ ٱللَّهَ شَدِيدُ ٱلْعَذَابِ ١٦٥

And of mankind are some who take others besides Allah (invoke, call upon for help, ascribe divinity or give the qualities of Allah SWT to them) as contenders in this regard to Allah. They love them as they love Allah. But those who believe, love Allah more than anything else. If only, those who do wrong could see, when they will see the torment, that all power belongs to Allah and that Allah is severe in punishment. (Q. 2:165)