The unforgivable sin - Shirk

‘Shirk’ signifies ascribing partners to Allāh, an act deemed the cardinal sin. Pre-Islamic Arabian society was characterised by polytheism, where worshipping multiple celestial and terrestrial deities was prevalent. This practice, described as Jahiliya or ‘Age of Ignorance’, was marked by the pervasive instance of Shirk. This act contravenes the fundamental principle of Tawḥīd:

۞ وَإِذْ قَالَ إِبْرَٰهِيمُ لِأَبِيهِ ءَازَرَ أَتَتَّخِذُ أَصْنَامًا ءَالِهَةً ۖ إِنِّىٓ أَرَىٰكَ وَقَوْمَكَ فِى ضَلَـٰلٍۢ مُّبِينٍۢ ٧٤

“Remember when Abraham said to his father, Azar, ‘How can you take idols as gods? I see that you and your people have clearly gone astray’” (Q. 6:74).

The deification of idols, stone pillars, or celestial bodies like stars and planets was common, and the divine powers were often attributed to these entities. The advent of the Prophethood of Muḥammad marked a radical shift from this polytheistic paradigm. Central to the Islamic message was the strong condemnation of Shirk and a firm establishment of Tawḥīd.

۞ وَٱعْبُدُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ وَلَا تُشْرِكُوا۟ بِهِۦ شَيْـًۭٔا ۖ وَبِٱلْوَٰلِدَيْنِ إِحْسَـٰنًۭا وَبِذِى ٱلْقُرْبَىٰ وَٱلْيَتَـٰمَىٰ وَٱلْمَسَـٰكِينِ وَٱلْجَارِ ذِى ٱلْقُرْبَىٰ وَٱلْجَارِ ٱلْجُنُبِ وَٱلصَّاحِبِ بِٱلْجَنۢبِ وَٱبْنِ ٱلسَّبِيلِ وَمَا مَلَكَتْ أَيْمَـٰنُكُمْ ۗ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ لَا يُحِبُّ مَن كَانَ مُخْتَالًۭا فَخُورًا ٣٦

“Worship God; join nothing with Him. Be good to your parents, to relatives, to orphans, to the needy, to neighbours near and far, to travellers in need, and to your slaves. God does not like arrogant, boastful people” (Q. 4:36).

Muḥammad’s mission aimed at eradicating all forms of Shirk, exemplified in his cleansing of the Kaʿbah from idols, a symbol of polytheism. Thereafter, the Kaʿbah was dedicated as the monotheistic centre of worship for Muslims worldwide, symbolising the triumph of Tawḥīd over Shirk. This transformation is further echoed in Ḥadīth literature. In a ḥadīth narrated by ʾAbd Allāhibn Masʽūd, the Prophet was reported to have said, “The biggest of the great sins is to join others in worship with Allāh” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 44). Moreover, the ṣaḥāba, the companions of the Prophet, further reinforced the negation of Shirk through their teachings and practices, fostering an Islamic society grounded in the tenets of Tawḥīd.

Shirk, fundamentally, refers to the practice of associating others with Allāh in His exclusive domains of Lordship (Rubūbiyya), worship (Ulūhiyya/ibādah), or His distinctive names and attributes (al-asmā’ wa’l-ṣifāt). This concept extends over a broad spectrum, embracing various manifestations of Shirk, whether they are overt or covert, severe or minor (Tafsīr Ibn Kathir).

The inclusion of any other entity, divine or mortal, into the realms of worship, attributes of Allāh, or acts of piety, is unequivocally a form of Shirk. This holds true regardless of whether the person posits that they have not equated that entity with Allāh. Indeed, such a contention fundamentally contravenes the principle of monotheism. For, in effect, they have created a parity, given that all forms of worship are solely the prerogative of Allāh. His attributes are wholly unique, devoid of any resemblance to others.

Therefore, the inclusion of another entity, directly or indirectly, implies a claim that, in some respect or aspect, that entity is equivalent to Allāh. This would not have been the case, were it not for their inclusion. Thus, it is critical to be vigilant against such theological pitfalls and ensure the exclusivity of Allāh in all aspects of our faith and worship. Understanding the prerequisites and conditions of Shirk is pivotal, as it aids in safeguarding their faith against any potential infringements. In its most basic understanding, Shirk refers to associating partners or equivalents with Allāh. Shirk stands as a grave sin that negates Tawḥīd.

إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ لَا يَغْفِرُ أَن يُشْرَكَ بِهِۦ وَيَغْفِرُ مَا دُونَ ذَٰلِكَ لِمَن يَشَآءُ ۚ وَمَن يُشْرِكْ بِٱللَّهِ فَقَدِ ٱفْتَرَىٰٓ إِثْمًا عَظِيمًا ٤٨

“God does not forgive the joining of partners with Him: anything less than that He forgives to whoever He will, but anyone who joins partners with God has concocted a tremendous sin” (Q. 4:48).

Furthermore the inclusion of others alongside God within supplication is tantamount to shirk and is expressly prohibited:

لَهُۥ دَعْوَةُ ٱلْحَقِّ ۖ وَٱلَّذِينَ يَدْعُونَ مِن دُونِهِۦ لَا يَسْتَجِيبُونَ لَهُم بِشَىْءٍ إِلَّا كَبَـٰسِطِ كَفَّيْهِ إِلَى ٱلْمَآءِ لِيَبْلُغَ فَاهُ وَمَا هُوَ بِبَـٰلِغِهِۦ ۚ وَمَا دُعَآءُ ٱلْكَـٰفِرِينَ إِلَّا فِى ضَلَـٰلٍۢ ١٤

“Calling upon Him ˹alone˺ is the truth. But those ˹idols˺ the pagans invoke besides Him ˹can˺ never respond to them in any way. ˹It is˺ just like someone who stretches out their hands to water, ˹asking it˺ to reach their mouths, but it can never do so. The calls of the disbelievers are only in vain” (Q. 13:14).

Different scholars have rendered their definitions with a common thematic undercurrent. AlRaghib al-Asbhani (d. 425 A.H.) articulated, “Shirk is the affirmation of partners (shark) with Allāh”. In contrast, Al-Shawkani (d. 1255 A.H.) posited, “Shirk signifies making supplication to an entity other than Allāh in situations where only Allāh should be solicited, or presuming that a particular object possesses capabilities exclusive to Allāh, or intending to satisfy an entity with an act exclusively meant for Allāh” (Al-Durr al-Nadid, p. 34). Muḥammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (d. 1206 A.H.) interpreted it as, “… orienting an act of worship towards a being other than Allāh, (such as) addressing others in addition to Allāh, or directing an act of worship commanded by Allāh towards another” (Mu’alafat al-Shaykh Muḥammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab, 1:281). Both the Qurʾān and Sunna employ these accurate expressions to describe Shirk. The Qurʾān persistently addresses Shirk, unequivocally condemning it.

“God does not forgive the joining of partners with Him: anything less than that He forgives to whoever He will, but anyone who joins partners with God has concocted a tremendous sin” (Q. 4:48).

لَقَدْ كَفَرَ ٱلَّذِينَ قَالُوٓا۟ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ هُوَ ٱلْمَسِيحُ ٱبْنُ مَرْيَمَ ۖ وَقَالَ ٱلْمَسِيحُ يَـٰبَنِىٓ إِسْرَٰٓءِيلَ ٱعْبُدُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ رَبِّى وَرَبَّكُمْ ۖ إِنَّهُۥ مَن يُشْرِكْ بِٱللَّهِ فَقَدْ حَرَّمَ ٱللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ ٱلْجَنَّةَ وَمَأْوَىٰهُ ٱلنَّارُ ۖ وَمَا لِلظَّـٰلِمِينَ مِنْ أَنصَارٍۢ ٧٢

لَّقَدْ كَفَرَ ٱلَّذِينَ قَالُوٓا۟ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ ثَالِثُ ثَلَـٰثَةٍۢ ۘ وَمَا مِنْ إِلَـٰهٍ إِلَّآ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ ۚ وَإِن لَّمْ يَنتَهُوا۟ عَمَّا يَقُولُونَ لَيَمَسَّنَّ ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ مِنْهُمْ عَذَابٌ أَلِيمٌ ٧٣

“Those who say, ‘God is the Messiah, son of Mary,’ have defied God. The Messiah himself said, ‘Children of Israel, worship God, my Lord and your Lord.’ If anyone associates others with God, God will forbid him from the Garden, and Hell will be his home. No one will help such evildoers. Those people who say that God is the third of three are defying [the truth]: there is only One God. If they persist in what they are saying, a painful punishment will afflict those of them who persist” (Q. 5:72-73).

۞ قُلْ تَعَالَوْا۟ أَتْلُ مَا حَرَّمَ رَبُّكُمْ عَلَيْكُمْ ۖ أَلَّا تُشْرِكُوا۟ بِهِۦ شَيْـًۭٔا ۖ وَبِٱلْوَٰلِدَيْنِ إِحْسَـٰنًۭا ۖ وَلَا تَقْتُلُوٓا۟ أَوْلَـٰدَكُم مِّنْ إِمْلَـٰقٍۢ ۖ نَّحْنُ نَرْزُقُكُمْ وَإِيَّاهُمْ ۖ وَلَا تَقْرَبُوا۟ ٱلْفَوَٰحِشَ مَا ظَهَرَ مِنْهَا وَمَا بَطَنَ ۖ وَلَا تَقْتُلُوا۟ ٱلنَّفْسَ ٱلَّتِى حَرَّمَ ٱللَّهُ إِلَّا بِٱلْحَقِّ ۚ ذَٰلِكُمْ وَصَّىٰكُم بِهِۦ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَعْقِلُونَ ١٥١

“Say, ‘Come! I will tell you what your Lord has really forbidden you. Do not ascribe anything as a partner to Him; be good to your parents; do not kill your children in fear of poverty’- We will provide for you and for them- ‘ stay well away from committing obscenities, whether openly or in secret; do not take the life God has made sacred, except by right. This is what He commands you to do: perhaps you will use your reason” (Q. 6:151).

وَإِذْ قَالَ لُقْمَـٰنُ لِٱبْنِهِۦ وَهُوَ يَعِظُهُۥ يَـٰبُنَىَّ لَا تُشْرِكْ بِٱللَّهِ ۖ إِنَّ ٱلشِّرْكَ لَظُلْمٌ عَظِيمٌۭ ١٣

“Luqman counselled his son, ‘My son, do not attribute any partners to God: attributing partners to Him is a terrible wrong’” (Q. 31:13).

ٱلَّذِى جَعَلَ لَكُمُ ٱلْأَرْضَ فِرَٰشًۭا وَٱلسَّمَآءَ بِنَآءًۭ وَأَنزَلَ مِنَ ٱلسَّمَآءِ مَآءًۭ فَأَخْرَجَ بِهِۦ مِنَ ٱلثَّمَرَٰتِ رِزْقًۭا لَّكُمْ ۖ فَلَا تَجْعَلُوا۟ لِلَّهِ أَندَادًۭا وَأَنتُمْ تَعْلَمُونَ ٢٢

“who spread out the earth for you and built the sky; who sent water down from it and with that water produced things for your sustenance. Do not, knowing this, set up rivals to God” (Q. 2:22).

إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ لَا يَغْفِرُ أَن يُشْرَكَ بِهِۦ وَيَغْفِرُ مَا دُونَ ذَٰلِكَ لِمَن يَشَآءُ ۚ وَمَن يُشْرِكْ بِٱللَّهِ فَقَدْ ضَلَّ ضَلَـٰلًۢا بَعِيدًا ١١٦

“God does not forgive the worship of others beside Him- though He does forgive whoever He will for lesser sins- for whoever does this has gone far, far astray” (Q. 4:116).

The use of Shirk in the Ḥadīth corpus complements the Qurʾānic emphasis on the sinfulness of associating partners with Allāh. For instance, the Prophet Muḥammad advised his companions to avoid Shirk, “the most grievous of wrongs” (Al-Bukhārī, 1940). The Prophet declared, “Whoever dies while asserting that Allāh has a rival will enter Hell” (Ṣaḥīḥ alBukhārī, 4497; Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, 92).

The ṣaḥāba were vigilant in their abstinence from Shirk. ‘Abdullāh ibn Mas’ūd, “Whosoever desires to see the minor shirk, which is more hidden than a black ant on a black rock in a night, should look at this verse, ‘They took their rabbis and their monks to be their lords besides Allāh’” (Tafsīr Ibn Kathīr, Q. 2:256). This statement emphasises the ṣaḥāba’s profound understanding of Shirk, cautioning against its subtle forms even in religious authority and leadership. When Ibn Mas’ud asked the Prophet, “What is the gravest sin?” He answered: “To assign to Allāh a partner (nidd) despite being created by Him” (Ṣaḥīḥ alBukhārī, 4477; Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, 87).

Numerous Islamic scholars have undertaken comprehensive examinations of Shirk. AlGhazālī, for instance, gave profound attention to the term Shirk in his book “Iḥyā ʾUlūm alDīn,” describing it as the opposite of sincere faith. Ibn Taymiyyah explicated Shirk in his work “Al-Qā’idah al-Jalīlah fī al-Tawassul wa al-Wasīlah,” elucidating that any act of worship directed towards anything other than Allāh constitutes Shirk, regardless of the entity invoked.

Hence, Shirk denotes the conviction in an entity that shares Allāh’s sovereignty. Such a ‘partner’ could be identified in lordship (Rubūbiyya), in worship (Ulūhiyya), or in attributes (asma wa l-Ṣifāt). Essentially, Shirk represents the diversion of Allāh’s unique rights to another entity. Thus, asserting that a particular object or deity holds the power to confer blessings or fulfil one’s needs equates to shirk. Similarly, offering prostration or making supplications (du’a’) to an entity other than Allāh is Shirk. Additionally, the belief that any created object possesses omniscience or can hear any supplication addressed to it constitutes Shirk. Shirk has transpired whenever a specific right unique to Allāh is attributed to any other entity, whether that entity is living or inanimate, factual or fictitious.

In its Arabic linguistic context, the term ‘shirk’ implies establishing a partnership, which means acknowledging someone as the equivalent of another. The Arabic phrase ‘ashraka baynahuma’(Trans. he conjoined them) is used when two entities are perceived to have equal status. In contrast, ‘ashraka fī amrihi ghayrahu’ (Trans. he incorporated another into his affair) refers to the involvement of two individuals in a single matter. Shirk denotes the attribution of a partner or adversary to Allāh in His Lordship (Rubūbiyya), devotion, or His names and characteristics. An adversary implies an equal or counterpart. Thus, Allāh expressly prohibits the establishment of adversaries alongside Him and reprimands those who accept such adversaries as deities besides or in place of Allāh, as illustrated in several Qurʾānic verses.

“who spread out the earth for you and built the sky; who sent water down from it and with that water produced things for your sustenance. Do not, knowing this, set up rivals to God” (Q. 2:22).

وَجَعَلُوا۟ لِلَّهِ أَندَادًۭا لِّيُضِلُّوا۟ عَن سَبِيلِهِۦ ۗ قُلْ تَمَتَّعُوا۟ فَإِنَّ مَصِيرَكُمْ إِلَى ٱلنَّارِ ٣٠

“They set up [false deities] as God’s equals to lead people astray from His path. Say, ‘Take your pleasure now, for your destination is the Fire’” (Q. 14:30.)

Etymologically, the term ‘shirk’ originates from the triliteral root شرك) Sh-R-K) (Mú jam Maqayis al-Lughah, 3:275). Faris, a celebrated linguist, construes its meaning as ‘to augment or annexe, devoid of singularity or unity’. Thus, the term shirk inherently suggests an associate or collaborator, which conveys the concept of sharing or partnering as it applies to various contexts. In a purely linguistic sense, the term’s essence embodies sharing or dividing something (Wehr, 1979). This core meaning becomes critically relevant when we place it in a theological context that refers to ‘sharing’ or ‘associating’ partners with the monotheistic deity, Allāh. In the Qurʾān, the term Shirk and its various derivatives occur approximately 70 times (Abdel Haleem, 2004). Here, Shirk represents the gravest sin, associating others with Allāh, such as,

“Indeed, Allāh does not forgive association with Him, but He forgives what is less than that for whom He wills” (Q. 4:48).

Having considered the definition of Shirk and its linguistic origins, it is pertinent to trace the human origins of Shirk (associating partners with Allāh) necessitates a journey back to the earliest chapters of human existence. The Qurʾān provides an insight into the inception of monotheism with the creation of Adam, the first man, who was taught the knowledge of all names and was made the Khalifa on Earth.

وَإِذْ قَالَ رَبُّكَ لِلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةِ إِنِّى جَاعِلٌۭ فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ خَلِيفَةًۭ ۖ قَالُوٓا۟ أَتَجْعَلُ فِيهَا مَن يُفْسِدُ فِيهَا وَيَسْفِكُ ٱلدِّمَآءَ وَنَحْنُ نُسَبِّحُ بِحَمْدِكَ وَنُقَدِّسُ لَكَ ۖ قَالَ إِنِّىٓ أَعْلَمُ مَا لَا تَعْلَمُونَ ٣٠

وَعَلَّمَ ءَادَمَ ٱلْأَسْمَآءَ كُلَّهَا ثُمَّ عَرَضَهُمْ عَلَى ٱلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةِ فَقَالَ أَنۢبِـُٔونِى بِأَسْمَآءِ هَـٰٓؤُلَآءِ إِن كُنتُمْ صَـٰدِقِينَ ٣١

“[Prophet], when your Lord told the angels, ‘I am putting a successor on earth,’ they said, ‘How can You put someone there who will cause damage and bloodshed, when we celebrate Your praise and proclaim Your holiness?’ but He said, ‘I know things you do not.’ He taught Adam all the names [of things], then He showed them to the angels and said, ‘Tell me the names of these if you truly [think you can]’” (Q. 2:30-31).

The narrative illustrates the unique relationship between the Creator and the first creation, highlighting the absence of intermediaries, thus implying the concept of Tawḥīd. It is pivotal to note the Qurʾānic narrative of Iblis, who, despite being from the Jinn, was in the company of angels. Iblis’s refusal to prostrate to Adam out of arrogance and self-proclaimed superiority:

وَلَقَدْ خَلَقْنَـٰكُمْ ثُمَّ صَوَّرْنَـٰكُمْ ثُمَّ قُلْنَا لِلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةِ ٱسْجُدُوا۟ لِـَٔادَمَ فَسَجَدُوٓا۟ إِلَّآ إِبْلِيسَ لَمْ يَكُن مِّنَ ٱلسَّـٰجِدِينَ ١١

قَالَ مَا مَنَعَكَ أَلَّا تَسْجُدَ إِذْ أَمَرْتُكَ ۖ قَالَ أَنَا۠ خَيْرٌۭ مِّنْهُ خَلَقْتَنِى مِن نَّارٍۢ وَخَلَقْتَهُۥ مِن طِينٍۢ ١٢

“We created you, We gave you shape, and then We said to the angels, ‘Bow down before Adam,’ and they did. But not Iblis: he was not one of those who bowed down. God said, ‘What prevented you from bowing down as I commanded you?’ and he said, ‘I am better than him: You created me from fire and him from clay’” (Q. 7:11-12).

Culminating in his expulsion and subsequent resolve to lead humanity astray:

قَالَ فَبِمَآ أَغْوَيْتَنِى لَأَقْعُدَنَّ لَهُمْ صِرَٰطَكَ ٱلْمُسْتَقِيمَ ١٦

ثُمَّ لَـَٔاتِيَنَّهُم مِّنۢ بَيْنِ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَمِنْ خَلْفِهِمْ وَعَنْ أَيْمَـٰنِهِمْ وَعَن شَمَآئِلِهِمْ ۖ وَلَا تَجِدُ أَكْثَرَهُمْ شَـٰكِرِينَ ١٧

“And then Iblis said, ‘Because You have put me in the wrong, I will lie in wait for them all on Your straight path: I will come at them- from their front and their back, from their right and their left- and You will find that most of them are ungrateful’” (Q. 7:16-17).

Though this narrative does not represent Shirk, it delineates the beginning of a challenge to the Tawḥīdic relationship between Allāh and His creations, which Iblis sought to disrupt. The first instances of Shirk arose generations after Adam when people began to venerate pious individuals posthumously. Ibn ʿAbbās narrated that the idols worshipped by the Quraysh were righteous men before their death. However, after their passing, statues were built on their graves as reminders of their piety, which later generations began to worship. The time of Prophet Nūḥ represents a pivotal moment in human history where Shirk became prevalent. The Qurʾān presents Prophet Nūḥ as a harbinger of monotheism in an age riddled with idolatry, emphasising the enduring struggle against Shirk.

According to the Qurʾānic narrative, Nūḥ was sent to his people who had strayed from the path of monotheism and fallen into Shirk’s trappings. Their worship was directed towards idols, which they revered due to earlier generations’ influence.

وَقَالُوا۟ لَا تَذَرُنَّ ءَالِهَتَكُمْ وَلَا تَذَرُنَّ وَدًّۭا وَلَا سُوَاعًۭا وَلَا يَغُوثَ وَيَعُوقَ وَنَسْرًۭا ٢٣

“saying, ‘Do not renounce your gods! Do not renounce Wadd, Suwa, Yaghuth, Yauq, or Nasr!’” (Q. 71:23).

According to tafsīr sources, the idols mentioned in the verse were once righteous individuals, but posthumously, they were venerated to the point of deification, indicating the manifestation of Shirk. Nūḥ, commissioned by Allāh, embarked on a mission to dismantle these practices and guide his people back to the path of Tawhīd, the oneness of God. His message was clear and forthright,

لَقَدْ أَرْسَلْنَا نُوحًا إِلَىٰ قَوْمِهِۦ فَقَالَ يَـٰقَوْمِ ٱعْبُدُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ مَا لَكُم مِّنْ إِلَـٰهٍ غَيْرُهُۥٓ إِنِّىٓ أَخَافُ عَلَيْكُمْ عَذَابَ يَوْمٍ عَظِيمٍۢ ٥٩

“We sent Nūḥ to his people. He said, ‘My people, serve God: you have no god other than Him. I fear for you the punishment of a fearsome Day!’” (Q. 7:59).

However, he faced immense resistance and mockery from his people, deeply entrenched in their idolatrous practices. The Qurʾān recounts Nūḥ’s prolonged attempts to guide his people to monotheism.

فَتَوَلَّىٰ عَنْهُمْ وَقَالَ يَـٰقَوْمِ لَقَدْ أَبْلَغْتُكُمْ رِسَالَةَ رَبِّى وَنَصَحْتُ لَكُمْ وَلَـٰكِن لَّا تُحِبُّونَ ٱلنَّـٰصِحِينَ ٧٩

“So he turned away from them, saying, ‘My people, I delivered my Lord’s messages to you and gave you sincere advice, but you did not like those who gave sincere advice’” (Q. 7:79).

Despite his prolonged endeavour over nine centuries, Nūḥ’s message was met with persistent obstinacy.

وَلَقَدْ أَرْسَلْنَا نُوحًا إِلَىٰ قَوْمِهِۦ فَلَبِثَ فِيهِمْ أَلْفَ سَنَةٍ إِلَّا خَمْسِينَ عَامًۭا فَأَخَذَهُمُ ٱلطُّوفَانُ وَهُمْ ظَـٰلِمُونَ ١٤

“We sent Nūḥ out to his people. He lived among them for fifty years short of a thousand but when the Flood overwhelmed them they were still doing evil” (Q. 29:14).

Interestingly, the Qurʾān characterises the Shirk during Nūḥ’s era as being not merely a matter of misguided personal belief but a societal issue entwined with tradition and ancestry.

فَقَالَ ٱلْمَلَأُ ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ مِن قَوْمِهِۦ مَا نَرَىٰكَ إِلَّا بَشَرًۭا مِّثْلَنَا وَمَا نَرَىٰكَ ٱتَّبَعَكَ إِلَّا ٱلَّذِينَ هُمْ أَرَاذِلُنَا بَادِىَ ٱلرَّأْىِ وَمَا نَرَىٰ لَكُمْ عَلَيْنَا مِن فَضْلٍۭ بَلْ نَظُنُّكُمْ كَـٰذِبِينَ ٢٧

“But the prominent disbelievers among his people said, ‘We can see that you are nothing but a mortal like ourselves, and it is clear to see that only the vilest among us follow you. We cannot see how you are any better than we are. In fact, we think you are a liar’” (Q. 11:27).

This refutation represents a significant societal barrier in the face of monotheism. It showcases the notion that Shirk had not only tainted their beliefs but was deeply ingrained within their societal structure, which was based on power, privilege, and lineage. Therefore, the resistance from the people of Nūḥ was not merely to the message of monotheism but to a shift in societal norms and structures that the message entailed.

The Prophetic tradition also offers valuable insight into the spread and entrenchment of Shirk during this era. According to Ibn ‘Abbas in Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, the named idols (Wadd, Suwa’, Yaghuth, Ya’uq, and Nasr) in the Qurʾān were righteous individuals during the pre-Nūḥ era. After their death, Satan inspired their people to erect statues in their memory, and subsequent generations began to worship them, illustrating the gradual shift from monotheism to shirk.

Despite their obstinance, Nūḥ remained steadfast, continually preaching monotheism and warning his people of the severe consequences of Shirk. However, only a small group believed in his message and followed him. Consequently, a divine punishment in the form of a great flood was inflicted on the disbelievers. At the same time, Nūḥ and the believers were saved in the Ark, symbolising the triumph of monotheism over polytheism.

The account of Prophet Nūḥ underscores Shirk, underscoring its gravity and the persistent effort required to combat it. From a broader perspective, this narrative serves as a reminder for subsequent generations about the dangers of Shirk and the necessity to uphold Tawhīd.

Classical Islamic scholars, such as Ibn Kathir, while expounding the tafsīr of these verses, reiterated the same narrative, highlighting Shirk’s slow and insidious progression. Contemporary Islamic academics, like Tariq Ramadan, also acknowledge this progression, emphasising societal structures and norms’ role in reinforcing and continuing such practices. The account of Prophet Nūḥ underlines the insidious nature of Shirk and the consequent societal and spiritual decay it can engender. It emphasises the need for continuous striving towards Tawḥīd and vigilance against the lure of Shirk. The Bible offers parallels, citing the shift towards idolatry in the generations after Nūḥ. Genesis 11 discusses the building of the Tower of Babel, a monumental endeavour by humanity to reach the heavens, symbolising a challenge to God’s sovereignty and a form of association.

The advent of Islam brought a revolutionary rejection of these practices. The message of monotheism, explicitly opposing all forms of Shirk, was communicated through revelations received by the Prophet Muḥammad. The struggle against Shirk continued throughout his Prophethood and culminated in the conquest of Mecca, where he cleansed the Kaʿbah of all idols, thus establishing the victory of monotheism. In contemporary times, Shirk manifests subtly, often concealed within societal norms. Materialism, the deification of science, personality cults, and extremist religious sects that venerate their leaders excessively may inadvertently commit Shirk. We must heighten awareness of these nuances to guard the Ummah against any form of Shirk, ensuring the purity of monotheistic faith is maintained.

While in our times, the most explicit form of Shirk, idol worship, may not be present, it is pertinent to understand the different forms of Shirk so we can avoid them. Based on the revelations in the Qurʾān and Sunna, Shirk, or the attribution of equals to Allāh, can either exclude a person from the faith or not. Consequently, scholars have classified Shirk into two categories: shirk al-akbar (major polytheism) and shirk al-aṣghar (minor polytheism). Herein is a concise description of each type:

Shirk al-Akbar denotes attributing to an entity other than Allāh something that is solely the prerogative of Allāh, such as Lordship (Rubūbiyya), divinity (Ulūhiyya), and the divine names and attributes (al-asmā’ wa’l-ṣifāt). This Shirk can be overt, like the Shirk practised by those who worship idols, graves, or the deceased or absent. Alternatively, it can be concealed, as in the case of those who place their trust in deities apart from Allāh or the hypocrites’ Shirk and kufr. Despite their Shirk causing them to deviate from Islam and destining them to eternal damnation in Hell, it is a concealed shirk, as they publicly proclaim Islam while privately hiding their kufr and Shirk. Thus, they are inward mushriks but not outwardly.

**Inward Shirk: The Silent Threat to Monotheism**

The concept of shirk extends beyond overt manifestations, delving deep into the subtle, inner dimensions of a person’s beliefs and intentions. This form of shirk is referred to as “inward shirk” or “shirk al-khafī,” and it represents one of the most covert yet profound threats to genuine monotheism.

The Qurʾān, while warning about the outward practices that constitute shirk, also hints at its more concealed forms. Allāh says: “Is it not to Allāh that sincere devotion is due? But those who take protectors besides Him [say], ‘We only worship them so that they may bring us nearer to Allāh in position.’ Indeed, Allāh will judge between them concerning that over which they differ. Truly, Allāh does not guide someone who is a liar and [confirmed] disbeliever” (Q. 39:3) The verse implies that even if the intention behind an act is to get closer to Allāh, if the methodology is flawed, it becomes a form of shirk.

Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, a medieval Islamic scholar, profoundly elaborates on inward shirk, in his book Madārij al-Sālikīn, He describes how shirk can manifest in one’s reliance, love, fear, and hope. For instance, if one’s trust in a means surpasses their trust in Allāh, it becomes a form of shirk al-khafī.

Furthermore, Ibn Taymiyyah, in his Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā, identifies the hidden forms of shirk as more dangerous than the apparent ones. He mentions, for example, the act of performing religious deeds for the sake of public recognition, known as riyāʾ (showing off).

Al-Ghazālī, in his magnum opus Iḥyā ʿUlūm al-Dīn, dedicates a significant portion discussing the diseases of the heart, including inward shirk. He describes how subtle it can be, to the extent that a person might be unaware of its existence in their heart. It’s akin to a black ant on a black stone on a moonless night.

Ibn Taymiyya argues that major shirk can indeed be both outward and inward, with the latter often acting as the root cause of the former. For instance, someone might outwardly bow to an idol, which is a clear manifestation of major shirk. But it’s the inner belief – the conviction that the idol can bring benefit or prevent harm, which makes that physical act so grievous. In his work, Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā Ibn Taymiyya notes that even subtle internal beliefs, such as believing that someone other than Allāh possesses the inherent ability to benefit or harm without His will, can constitute major shirk. Such beliefs set the stage for blatant polytheistic practices.

Al-Ghazālī, in his Iḥyā ʿUlūm al-Dīn, explains that the heart is the battleground where the most significant spiritual wars are fought. If an individual’s internal convictions are polluted with notions that challenge the exclusivity of Allāh’s power and dominion, it becomes the precursor to manifest, major shirk.

Shirk al-akbar can manifest in beliefs. This includes the conviction that there is another who creates, bestows life and death, governs, or manages the universe’s affairs alongside Allāh. Alternatively, the conviction that there is another who necessitates absolute obedience apart from Allāh leads them to follow him in decreeing what he wishes as permissible or impermissible, even if it contravenes the messengers’ religion. They may also equate others with Allāh in affection and reverence by loving a creature as they love Allāh. This form of shirk is unforgivable, and it is the shirk referenced in the verse,

وَمِنَ ٱلنَّاسِ مَن يَتَّخِذُ مِن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ أَندَادًۭا يُحِبُّونَهُمْ كَحُبِّ ٱللَّهِ ۖ وَٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓا۟ أَشَدُّ حُبًّۭا لِّلَّهِ ۗ وَلَوْ يَرَى ٱلَّذِينَ ظَلَمُوٓا۟ إِذْ يَرَوْنَ ٱلْعَذَابَ أَنَّ ٱلْقُوَّةَ لِلَّهِ جَمِيعًۭا وَأَنَّ ٱللَّهَ شَدِيدُ ٱلْعَذَابِ ١٦٥

“Even so, there are some who choose to worship others besides God as rivals to Him, loving them with the love due to God, but the believers have greater love for God. If only the idolaters could see- as they will see when they face the torment- that all power belongs to God, and that God punishes severely” (Q. 2:165).

Alternatively, the conviction that some individuals possess knowledge of the unseen is equivalent to Allāh’s knowledge. It is also shirk to believe that someone dispenses mercy in a manner exclusively fitting for Allāh by showing mercy as Allāh does, forgiving sins, and disregarding his worshippers’ transgressions.

Shirk al-Akbar can manifest in speech those who supplicate pray to an entity other than Allāh or solicit his assistance or protection in matters only Allāh can govern. This excludes a person from Islam, whether the one invoked is a prophet, a wali, an angel, a jinn, or any other creature. Alternatively, those who mock religion equate Allāh to His creation or claim that there is another creator, sustainer, or ruler besides Allāh. These are forms of Shirk al-Akbar and a severe sin that remains unforgiven.

Shirk al-Akbar can manifest in actions someone who sacrifices, prays or prostrates to a being other than Allāh, or who introduces laws to supersede Allāh’s rulings and enforces them as the law for judgement, or someone who sides with the disbelievers and assists them against the believers. These acts conflict with the fundamental essence of faith and expel those who commit them from the fold of Islam. We seek refuge with Allāh from such transgressions.

Shirk al-aṣghar, which does not expel one from the realm of Islam, is a subtler form and can often go unnoticed. It includes actions performed to gain recognition rather than exclusively for Allāh’s sake. This form of Shirk is referred to as riya’ (showing-off). The Prophet Muḥammad cautioned his followers about this form of Shirk, comparing its subtle nature to the tiny black ant on a dark stone on a moonless night (Ṣaḥīḥ Al-Bukhārī, 3338).

Shirk al-aṣghar can manifest in statements, such as swearing by something other than Allāh. The Prophet Muḥammad is reported to have said, “Whoever swears by something other than Allāh has committed shirk” (Musnad Aḥmad, 10965).

Shirk al-aṣghar can manifest in actions, such as wearing charms, amulets, or talismans for protection or luck, suggesting a reliance on these objects rather than Allāh’s protection. The Prophet Muḥammad stated, “Whoever wears an amulet has committed shirk” (Musnad Aḥmad, 16969).

Though it is categorised as ‘minor’ compared to the significant form, it is crucial to underline that Shirk al-aṣghar is still a grave sin. The classification of ‘minor’ does not imply insignificance or a lesser need for repentance. Instead, it indicates that the sinner does not become a disbeliever due to committing such actions, although they are still required to seek Allāh’s forgiveness and amend their behaviour. All forms of Shirk, major and minor, are severe sins. Muslims must maintain pure tawḥīd by avoiding all forms of Shirk and constantly seeking knowledge to safeguard their faith from such grave errors.

Considering these categories, we must explore how a person can fall into Shirk by identifying its prerequisites. For a person to commit Shirk, certain conditions must be met. Firstly, knowledge (‘Ilm): An individual must understand tawḥīd and its contrast, Shirk, to fall into Shirk consciously.

مَّنِ ٱهْتَدَىٰ فَإِنَّمَا يَهْتَدِى لِنَفْسِهِۦ ۖ وَمَن ضَلَّ فَإِنَّمَا يَضِلُّ عَلَيْهَا ۚ وَلَا تَزِرُ وَازِرَةٌۭ وِزْرَ أُخْرَىٰ ۗ وَمَا كُنَّا مُعَذِّبِينَ حَتَّىٰ نَبْعَثَ رَسُولًۭا ١٥

“Whoever accepts guidance does so for his own good; whoever strays does so at his own peril. No soul will bear another’s burden, nor do We punish until We have sent a messenger” (Q. 17:15).

This verse implies that divine accountability is contingent on acquiring knowledge and receiving the message of Islam. Secondly, intent (Niyyah): The intent or purpose is a prerequisite for actions to be regarded as Shirk. The Prophet Muḥammad is reported to have said, “Actions are but by intention, and every man shall have but that which he intended” (Bukhāri, 1).

Thirdly, the acts, in essence, contradict tawḥīd: The violation of the unity of Allāh, whether in His Lordship, His worship, or His names and attributes, constitutes Shirk. For instance, divination and seeking assistance from the unseen (ghayb) are forms of Shirk, as they attribute to created beings attributes that belong solely to Allāh (Ibn Majah, 3530).

Fourthly, there is an implied or explicit equivalence with Allāh: Associating partners with Allāh in worship, invoking others besides Him, dedicating acts of worship to others, and holding the love for others equal to or above the love for Allāh are all conditions that lead to Shirk.

Shirk, as an intricate concept, not only involves manifest acts of association but also encompasses subtleties of belief and disposition. It is equally possible to commit shirk through the excess veneration of pious individuals, equating them to the status of Allāh or seeking help from them in matters exclusively within the divine domain (al-Jahiz, al-Bayan wa-al-Tabyin).

Furthermore, Shirk extends into the realm of obedience. Absolute obedience is due to Allāh and His Messenger alone. Allegiance to any authority that legislates contrary to the Qurʾān and Sunna and obedience to such also falls into the category of Shirk. The perils of Shirk are numerous. The Qurʾān elaborates on over two dozen distinctive detriments and malevolence associated with Shirk. Shirk represents the only sin that Allāh will not forgive,

“God does not forgive the joining of partners with Him: anything less than that He forgives to whoever He will, but anyone who joins partners with God has concocted a tremendous sin” (Q. 4:48).

“God does not forgive the worship of others beside Him- though He does forgive whoever He will for lesser sins- for whoever does this has gone far, far astray” (Q. 4:116, Abdel Haleem).

Should an individual depart from this life practising Shirk or without seeking repentance, they will never receive forgiveness for this sin. However, should an individual commit Shirk before accepting Islam and pass away as a Muslim, the sin of Shirk will be absolved. Allāh’s judgement upon a person is based on their state and īmān at the time of their death. Thus, this transgression would be pardoned if they committed Shirk in the past but later embraced Islam. Shirk bars individuals from entering Paradise, securing them a permanent residence in Hell.

Kufr and nifāq are unforgivable sins should a person pass away in such a state. Nevertheless, as Shirk is the most prevalent form of kufr, Allāh mentioned it specifically, noting that He could forgive anything lesser if He so willed. Kufr and nifāq, both equally repugnant, are not ‘lesser’ than Shirk. Therefore, it should not be assumed that a person dying in a state of kufr or nifāq, having not committed Shirk, might be forgiven. The enormity of Shirk is such that it obliterates all of an individual’s virtuous deeds. Regardless of how fleeting or small an act of Shirk may be, its corrupt nature eradicates all the good actions a person might have executed. Consequently, one who commits Shirk can anticipate no recompense from Allāh on the Day of Judgement, even for deeds performed in the name of Allāh.

وَلَقَدْ أُوحِىَ إِلَيْكَ وَإِلَى ٱلَّذِينَ مِن قَبْلِكَ لَئِنْ أَشْرَكْتَ لَيَحْبَطَنَّ عَمَلُكَ وَلَتَكُونَنَّ مِنَ ٱلْخَـٰسِرِينَ ٦٥

“It has already been revealed to you [Prophet] and to those before you: ‘If you ascribe any partner to God, all your work will come to nothing: you will be one if the losers” (Q. 39:65).

This verse emphasises the wickedness of Shirk in multiple aspects. Firstly, it is addressed to the Prophet. Despite the impossibility of the Prophet ever succumbing to Shirk, the sheer warning against it underscores its malevolence. Secondly, Allāh declares that this identical message was dispatched to all prophets before Muḥammad. Therefore, the fact that every Prophet was given this severe caution further underscores the perils of Shirk.

Thirdly, Allāh communicates that if the Prophet were to engage in Shirk, all his virtuous deeds would be negated and hold no value. Thus, if the individual possessing the greatest number of good deeds amongst all of Adam’s progeny would not profit from those good deeds if he engaged in Shirk, what is the case for others who are significantly below his stature, with far fewer good deeds? Lastly, Allāh concludes the verse by declaring that the one who commits Shirk will forfeit all good in this life and the Hereafter. Therefore, this single verse is, in truth, ample evidence of the abhorrence and dangers of Shirk. If an individual departs this life in a state of Shirk, it is forbidden for his Muslim friends and family members to seek forgiveness for him. This act is so repulsive that a Muslim would be culpable if they implore Allāh to absolve a person who has committed Shirk. Despite Allāh’s mercy being all-encompassing,

مَا كَانَ لِلنَّبِىِّ وَٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓا۟ أَن يَسْتَغْفِرُوا۟ لِلْمُشْرِكِينَ وَلَوْ كَانُوٓا۟ أُو۟لِى قُرْبَىٰ مِنۢ بَعْدِ مَا تَبَيَّنَ لَهُمْ أَنَّهُمْ أَصْحَـٰبُ ٱلْجَحِيمِ ١١٣

“It is not fitting for the Prophet and the believers to ask forgiveness for the idolaters- even if they are related to them- after having been shown that they are the inhabitants of the Blaze” (Q. 9:113).

Allāh characterises those engaging in Shirk as najas, symbolising spiritual impurity. This defilement represents spiritual contamination, as they have besmirched their immaculate souls with Shirk.

يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓا۟ إِنَّمَا ٱلْمُشْرِكُونَ نَجَسٌۭ فَلَا يَقْرَبُوا۟ ٱلْمَسْجِدَ ٱلْحَرَامَ بَعْدَ عَامِهِمْ هَـٰذَا ۚ وَإِنْ خِفْتُمْ عَيْلَةًۭ فَسَوْفَ يُغْنِيكُمُ ٱللَّهُ مِن فَضْلِهِۦٓ إِن شَآءَ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ عَلِيمٌ حَكِيمٌۭ ٢٨

“Believers, those who ascribe partners to God are truly unclean: do not let them come near the Sacred Mosque after this year. If you are afraid you may become poor, [bear in mind that] God will enrich you out of His bounty if He pleases: God is all knowing and wise” (Q. 9:28).

The various pathways leading to shirk come in different forms and have been mentioned throughout the Qurʾān and Sunna. One potential path towards Shirk is the excessive veneration of pious individuals or figures. This can manifest as over-zealous adoration of saints or prophets, leading to their deification.

“God does not forgive the worship of others beside Him- though He does forgive whoever He will for lesser sins- for whoever does this has gone far, far astray” (Q. 4:116).

The worship or belief in multiple deities is fundamentally incompatible with Tawḥīd.

“who spread out the earth for you and built the sky; who sent water down from it and with that water produced things for your sustenance. Do not, knowing this, set up rivals to God” (Q. 2:22).

Another means to falling into Shirk is the misappropriation of Allāh’s names and attributes, which are unique to Him alone—assigning these attributes to others, whether humans, animals, or inanimate objects, is a pathway leading to Shirk. This concept is reinforced by a ḥadīth reported by a Muslim from the narration of Ubayy ibn Kaʾb, “Allāh’s Messenger said, ‘Do not exaggerate in praising me as the Christians praised the son of Mary, for I am only a Slave. So, call me the Slave of Allāh and His Messenger’” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 3445).

The belief in unwarranted intercession – that beings other than Allāh can independently grant benefits or avert harm – is a clear path to Shirk. This principle is outlined in Al-Zumar,

قُل لِّلَّهِ ٱلشَّفَـٰعَةُ جَمِيعًۭا ۖ لَّهُۥ مُلْكُ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ ۖ ثُمَّ إِلَيْهِ تُرْجَعُونَ ٤٤

“Say, ‘All intercession belongs to God alone; He holds control of the heavens and the earth; in the end you will all return to Him’” (Q. 39:44).

Shirk can also arise from demonstrating excessive allegiance or obedience to any authority other than Allāh.

ٱتَّخَذُوٓا۟ أَحْبَارَهُمْ وَرُهْبَـٰنَهُمْ أَرْبَابًۭا مِّن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ وَٱلْمَسِيحَ ٱبْنَ مَرْيَمَ وَمَآ أُمِرُوٓا۟ إِلَّا لِيَعْبُدُوٓا۟ إِلَـٰهًۭا وَٰحِدًۭا ۖ لَّآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ۚ سُبْحَـٰنَهُۥ عَمَّا يُشْرِكُونَ ٣١

“They take their rabbis and their monks as lords, as well as Christ, the son of Mary. But they were commanded to serve only one God: there is no god but Him; He is far above whatever they set up as His partners!” (Q. 9:31).

Having covered the various forms and implications of Shirk, it becomes paramount to delve into the preventive measures and treatments for Shirk. Shirk’s primary prevention and treatment lie in a thorough understanding and unwavering belief in tawḥīd – the Oneness of Allāh in His lordship, worship, and attributes.

قُلْ هُوَ ٱللَّهُ أَحَدٌ ١ ٱللَّهُ ٱلصَّمَدُ ٢ لَمْ يَلِدْ وَلَمْ يُولَدْ ٣ وَلَمْ يَكُن لَّهُۥ كُفُوًا أَحَدٌۢ ٤

“Say, ‘He is God the One, God the eternal. He begot no one nor was He begotten. No one is comparable to Him’” (Q. 112:1-4). Regular recitation of supplications and Qurʾānic verses also offer protection against Shirk. The Prophet Muḥammad used to frequently recite a dua for protection from Shirk, as reported by Ahmad on the authority of ʾĀ’isha:

اللهم إني أعوذبك أن أشرك بك وأنا أعلم، وأستغفرك لما لا أعلم

“O Allāh! I seek refuge with You that I should associate anything with You knowingly, and I seek Your forgiveness for what I know not” (Musnad Aḥmad, 4:40).

Having discussed the means of protecting oneself from Shirk, we will explore some of the most common forms and paths to Shirk. The inadvertent path towards Shirk through the veneration of Awliyāʾ is a complex interplay of religious adoration, veneration of holy figures, and the fine line separating respect and overstepping boundaries towards Shirk.

The practice of seeking intercession through the ʾawliyāʾ traces its roots to a warped understanding of their spiritual standing and closeness to Allāh. Al-Ghazālī, in his seminal work, Iḥyā ʾUlūm al-Dīn, elucidates the spiritual ranking of individuals, describing the ʾawliyāʾ as those who have reached a high rank in their closeness to Allāh. This veneration of ʾawliyāʾ is not a contemporary phenomenon. As Al-Majlisi, instances of saintly veneration can be traced back to the early periods of Islam (Bihar al-Anwar). However, the deviation begins when reverence transcends the boundaries of respect into the realm of worship, thereby inadvertently leading to Shirk. Ibn Taymiyyah warns against such a practice, categorising it as a form of major Shirk (Kitāb al-Īmān). The tradition of Islamic scholarship reiterates the need to navigate this fine line carefully. The intention and understanding behind seeking intercession defines its permissibility or impermissibility, a point stressed by Ibn Taymiyyah in Kitāb al-Īmān. However, societal norms and practices sometimes overshadow the careful balance scholars advocate. Ibn Khaldūn presents an astute analysis of societal behaviour in the context of religious practices and veneration. He underscores the potential of societal norms to be conflated with religious observances, leading to unintended forms of Shirk.

Moreover, some expressions of reverence have their roots in the Sufi tradition, as seen in the works of Rūmī. His poetry encapsulates the depth of divine love and closeness to Allāh, which some might misinterpret as advocating Shirk. The danger of Shirk is severe and, as Al- Ghazālī states in Iḥyā ʾUlūm al-Dīn, the punishment for Shirk is eternal damnation. However, he also emphasises that Allāh’s mercy is all-encompassing, and repentance is accepted from those who committed shirk out of ignorance, provided they desist after realising their error. The Qurʾān explicitly warns against deifying others alongside Allāh.

قُلِ ٱدْعُوا۟ ٱلَّذِينَ زَعَمْتُم مِّن دُونِهِۦ فَلَا يَمْلِكُونَ كَشْفَ ٱلضُّرِّ عَنكُمْ وَلَا تَحْوِيلًا ٥٦

“Say, ‘Call upon those you claim to be deities beside God: they have no power to remove or avert any harm from you’”(Q. 17:56).

This verse warns against seeking intercession from anyone other than Allāh, a form of Shirk. Awliyāʾ, despite their piety, cannot supersede the divine authority or assume His exclusive rights. In a ḥadīth qudsi, Allāh says:

“I am so self-sufficient that I am in no need of having an associate. Thus he who does an action for someone else’s sake, as well as Mine, will have that action renounced by Me to him whom he associated with Me.” (Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, 2985). Some have taken this same over veneration and applied it to the Prophet Muḥammad. It is important to note that the Qurʾān is categorical in maintaining the Prophet’s mortal, human status.

قُلْ إِنَّمَآ أَنَا۠ بَشَرٌۭ مِّثْلُكُمْ يُوحَىٰٓ إِلَىَّ أَنَّمَآ إِلَـٰهُكُمْ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ ۖ فَمَن كَانَ يَرْجُوا۟ لِقَآءَ رَبِّهِۦ فَلْيَعْمَلْ عَمَلًۭا صَـٰلِحًۭا وَلَا يُشْرِكْ بِعِبَادَةِ رَبِّهِۦٓ أَحَدًۢا ١١٠

“‘Say, ‘I am only a human being, like you, to whom it has been revealed that your God is One. Anyone who fears to meet his Lord should do good deeds and give no one a share in the worship due to his Lord” (Q. 18:110).

This verse is a critical tenet, confirming the Prophet’s role as a conduit of divine revelation and not a divine being himself. The Prophet warned, “Do not exaggerate in praising me as the Christians praised the son of Mary, for I am only a servant. So, call me the Servant of Allāh and His Messenger” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 3445). This statement further underscores the Prophet’s role as Allāh’s servant, not to be elevated to the status of divinity.

Despite the clear injunctions against such practices, there have been instances in history where reverence for the Prophet Muḥammad has tread a perilously thin line with Shirk. Some Muslims, particularly within specific Sufi orders, have been accused of engaging in practices such as seeking intercession through the Prophet and celebrating his birth (Mawlid) with a fervour that critics argue borders on worship. These practices are typically defended as expressions of love and reverence for the Prophet, not acts of worship directed towards him.

Contemporary academics have also addressed the issue of excessive veneration and its potential to slide into Shirk. In his work “Misquoting Muḥammad”, Jonathan A.C. Brown investigates this delicate balance between love for the Prophet and the Islamic injunction against Shirk.

While acknowledging the profound love and reverence Muslims hold for the Prophet Muḥammad, it is equally essential to recognise the sensitive line between respect and adulation that teeters on the brink of Shirk. The issue of excessive veneration becomes even more complex when considering the practices of certain sects and Sufi orders that include acts like supplicating to Allāh through the Prophet (tawassul). While some argue that this constitutes an unacceptable form of intercession, others see it as an expression of deep love and respect for the Prophet. This practice, as elucidated by scholars such as Louay Fatoohi in “Tawassul: Seeking a Way unto Allāh”, requires a nuanced understanding within its historical and theological contexts—the practice of tawassul, where individuals call upon the Prophet as an intermediary to Allāh. An exaggerated form of this is when individuals directly pray to the Prophet, asking him to fulfil their needs or answer their prayers rather than asking him to intercede with Allāh on their behalf; this transforms the Prophet from an intercessor to an object of worship.

Another instance can be seen in specific gatherings or ceremonies, commonly known as ‘urs, celebrated in some Sufi traditions, where poems and songs praise the Prophet and other holy figures. While praise and love for the Prophet are encouraged, these ceremonies can sometimes cross the boundary when attendees seek blessings or barakah directly from the Prophet or other saints instead of Allāh.

Moreover, some places have been erected as shrines in honour of the Prophet, and these can become sites of potentially problematic practices. Some visitors to these shrines may seek blessings from the site or the Prophet directly, believing their proximity to his physical remains may grant their prayers.

Celebrating the Prophet’s birth (Mawlid) is another practice wherein the intent is pivotal. Scholars like Khaled Abou El Fadl in “The Great Theft” emphasise the importance of understanding that the celebration should not elevate the Prophet to a divine status but rather should serve as a remembrance of his life and teachings. In some regions, celebrating the Prophet’s birthday can involve practices that may verge on Shirk, such as attributing miracles or supernatural abilities to the Prophet or praying to him directly.

The potential for falling into Shirk under the guise of expressing love for the Prophet is a severe concern that demands a clear understanding of theology and careful adherence to it. The Prophet himself warned against excessive veneration, and contemporary scholars echo this caution, ensuring that the line between respect and deification remains inviolable.

While most Muslims regard Prophet Muḥammad with the utmost respect and reverence, it is essential to remember that he was a human being and a servant of Allāh, not a divine entity. Therefore, any form of worship directed towards the Prophet is considered Shirk. This directly contravenes the tawḥīd.

The above examples raise a critical point: whether the action attributes divine qualities or abilities to the Prophet Muḥammad or sees him as a source of blessing or intercession independent of Allāh. If so, such practices are viewed as falling into the category of Shirk.

When engaging in actions which attribute divine qualities or abilities to the Prophet Muḥammad or see him as a source of blessing or intercession independent of Allāh, these actions contravene tawḥīd. The first part of the shahāda, “lā ilāha illā Allāh”, asserts this uniqueness and singularity of Allāh. Within this paradigm, Prophet Muḥammad holds a significant position as the final messenger of Allāh, but his ontological status remains fundamentally different from Allāh’s. Allāh is transcendent and eternal, the Creator of everything. His attributes, as revealed in the Qurʾān, include but are not limited to the Most Gracious (al-Raḥmān) and the Most Merciful (al-Raḥīm).

هُوَ ٱللَّهُ ٱلَّذِى لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلْمَلِكُ ٱلْقُدُّوسُ ٱلسَّلَـٰمُ ٱلْمُؤْمِنُ ٱلْمُهَيْمِنُ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْجَبَّارُ ٱلْمُتَكَبِّرُ ۚ سُبْحَـٰنَ ٱللَّهِ عَمَّا يُشْرِكُونَ ٢٣

“He is God: there is no god other than Him, the Controller, the Holy One, Source of Peace, Granter of Security, Guardian over all, the Almighty, the Compeller, the Truly Great; God is far above anything they consider to be His partner” (Q. 59:23).

On the other hand, Prophet Muḥammad, while deeply revered and respected, he is a mortal, a human being who received divine revelation.

“Say, ‘I am only a human being, like you, to whom it has been revealed that your God is One. Anyone who fears to meet his Lord should do good deeds and give no one a share in the worship due to his Lord” (Q. 18:110).

The Prophet himself discouraged any form of deification, “Do not over-praise me as the Christians over-praised Jesus son of Mary. I am His servant, so say: Allāh’s servant and His messenger” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 3445). Blurring the ontological and religious distinction between Allāh and the Prophet Muḥammad is a direct violation of the tawḥīd and can lead to Shirk. Such a misconstrued understanding, whether attributing divine characteristics to the Prophet or seeking his intercession independent of Allāh, is untenable.

Recognising this difference is critical for the correct belief. The examples discussed previously regarding the potential Shirk in the veneration of the Prophet Muḥammad all stem from this misinterpretation of his role and status. Misunderstandings arise when individuals, out of their profound love and respect for the Prophet Muḥammad, elevate him to a status equal or similar to Allāh, which in turn contradicts the core of tawḥīd. These actions may range from attributing divine powers to the Prophet, seeking help directly from him instead of Allāh, or in extreme cases, offering prayers to him.

A clear example from the Ḥadīth literature illustrating the Prophet’s position on this matter, a man came to the Prophet and said, ‘O Muḥammad, you are our master, son of our master, our best and son of our best’, to which the Prophet responded, “O People, let not the devil deceive you. I am Muḥammad, the slave of Allāh and His Messenger. I do not like you to elevate me above the status granted to me by Allāh” (Jāmiʿ al-Tirmidhī, 3616). The Qurʾān itself lays out the clear demarcation between Allāh and His creation,

فَاطِرُ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ ۚ جَعَلَ لَكُم مِّنْ أَنفُسِكُمْ أَزْوَٰجًۭا وَمِنَ ٱلْأَنْعَـٰمِ أَزْوَٰجًۭا ۖ يَذْرَؤُكُمْ فِيهِ ۚ لَيْسَ كَمِثْلِهِۦ شَىْءٌۭ ۖ وَهُوَ ٱلسَّمِيعُ ٱلْبَصِيرُ ١١

“the Creator of the heavens and earth.’ He made mates for you from among yourselves––and for the animals too––so that you may multiply. There is nothing like Him: He is the All Hearing, the All Seeing” (Q. 42:11).

Understanding the distinct ontological statuses of Allāh and Prophet Muḥammad is a means of safeguarding one’s faith from the transgression of shirk. The comprehensive understanding of the ontological difference between Allāh and His Prophet Muḥammad further encompasses the concept of ‘ilm al-ghayb (knowledge of the unseen). This knowledge is exclusive to Allāh alone,

۞ وَعِندَهُۥ مَفَاتِحُ ٱلْغَيْبِ لَا يَعْلَمُهَآ إِلَّا هُوَ ۚ وَيَعْلَمُ مَا فِى ٱلْبَرِّ وَٱلْبَحْرِ ۚ وَمَا تَسْقُطُ مِن وَرَقَةٍ إِلَّا يَعْلَمُهَا وَلَا حَبَّةٍۢ فِى ظُلُمَـٰتِ ٱلْأَرْضِ وَلَا رَطْبٍۢ وَلَا يَابِسٍ إِلَّا فِى كِتَـٰبٍۢ مُّبِينٍۢ ٥٩

“He has the keys to the unseen: no one knows them but Him. He knows all that is in the land and sea. No leaf falls without His knowledge, nor is there a single grain in the darkness of the earth, or anything, fresh or withered, that is not written in a clear Record” (Q. 6:59).

The belief that the Prophet Muḥammad possesses this comprehensive knowledge of the unseen equates him with Allāh’s attributes, crossing the threshold into Shirk. The Prophet himself refuted this notion stating, “I do not know what will be done with you or with me”, emphasising his humanity and the limitation of his knowledge (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 3336). In the same vein, many instances recorded in the sīra (biography) of the Prophet portray him seeking Allāh’s guidance in matters unknown, further establishing his human nature and the exclusivity of ‘ilm al-ghayb to Allāh alone. One notable example is when he consulted his companions during the Battle of Uhud, even though the ultimate decision contradicted his initial strategic inclination. This event, mentioned in various classical biographical sources such as the works of Ibn Isḥāq (704–767 CE) and Ibn Hishām (d. 833 CE), underlines the Prophet’s finite knowledge and decision-making capabilities.

In essence, understanding and respecting the fundamental differences between Allāh and Prophet Muḥammad is paramount in practising tawḥīd and avoiding Shirk. While the Prophet is venerated for his virtues and his profound role in delivering the divine message, it is crucial to recognise his human nature and the limits of his knowledge, thereby preserving the unique attributes of Allāh. It is crucial to highlight that a common form of excessive reverence is the belief in the intercession of the Prophet Muḥammad, which, in extreme forms, may breach the borders of monotheism. A common belief is that the Prophet can grant one’s wishes or directly intervene in one’s affairs after death, even without the permission of Allāh. However, this is contradictory to tawḥīd.

ٱللَّهُ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلْحَىُّ ٱلْقَيُّومُ ۚ لَا تَأْخُذُهُۥ سِنَةٌۭ وَلَا نَوْمٌۭ ۚ لَّهُۥ مَا فِى ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَمَا فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ ۗ مَن ذَا ٱلَّذِى يَشْفَعُ عِندَهُۥٓ إِلَّا بِإِذْنِهِۦ ۚ يَعْلَمُ مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَمَا خَلْفَهُمْ ۖ وَلَا يُحِيطُونَ بِشَىْءٍۢ مِّنْ عِلْمِهِۦٓ إِلَّا بِمَا شَآءَ ۚ وَسِعَ كُرْسِيُّهُ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضَ ۖ وَلَا يَـُٔودُهُۥ حِفْظُهُمَا ۚ وَهُوَ ٱلْعَلِىُّ ٱلْعَظِيمُ ٢٥٥

“God: there is no god but Him, the Ever Living, the Ever Watchful. Neither slumber nor sleep overtakes Him. All that is in the heavens and in the earth belongs to Him. Who is there that can intercede with Him except by His leave? He knows what is before them and what is behind them, but they do not comprehend any of His knowledge except what He wills. His throne extends over the heavens and the earth; it does not weary Him to preserve them both. He is the Most High, the Tremendous” (Q. 2:255).

The Prophet has clarified the parameters of his intercession, where he states, “I will have a status of honour with the Most Merciful, a station of intercession which no one else will have, but that will be only for those among my Ummah who have not associated anything with Allāh” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 3340; Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, 198).

In conclusion, Shirk is the worst sin a believer can commit it violates the essence of tawḥīd and ruins one’s relationship with Allāh, such that their sin is deemed unforgivable posthumously, in other words, if a person dies without turning back to tawḥīd they shall not enter Paradise. We explored the various conditions and common short fallings which led to Shirk and ended on two core themes, the ascription of Allāh’s attributes to others other than Allāh and excessive veneration such that person goes through a process of deification. We drew examples of ʾawliyāʾ and the excessive veneration of the Prophet. In these examples, we delineated that some, out of senseless love, have deified humans and violated sound tawḥīd and the guidance of the Qurʾān and Sunna. It is important to note, Firstly, that all acts of worship are for Allāh alone,

قُلْ إِنَّ صَلَاتِى وَنُسُكِى وَمَحْيَاىَ وَمَمَاتِى لِلَّهِ رَبِّ ٱلْعَـٰلَمِينَ ١٦٢ لَا شَرِيكَ لَهُۥ ۖ وَبِذَٰلِكَ أُمِرْتُ وَأَنَا۠ أَوَّلُ ٱلْمُسْلِمِينَ ١٦٣ قُلْ أَغَيْرَ ٱللَّهِ أَبْغِى رَبًّۭا وَهُوَ رَبُّ كُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ ۚ وَلَا تَكْسِبُ كُلُّ نَفْسٍ إِلَّا عَلَيْهَا ۚ وَلَا تَزِرُ وَازِرَةٌۭ وِزْرَ أُخْرَىٰ ۚ ثُمَّ إِلَىٰ رَبِّكُم مَّرْجِعُكُمْ فَيُنَبِّئُكُم بِمَا كُنتُمْ فِيهِ تَخْتَلِفُونَ ١٦٤

“Say, ‘My prayers and sacrifice, my life and death, are all for God, Lord of all the Worlds; He has no partner. This is what I am commanded, and I am the first to devote myself to Him.’ Say, ‘Should I seek a Lord other than God, when He is the Lord of all things?’ Each soul is responsible for its own actions; no soul will bear the burden of another. You will all return to your Lord in the end, and He will tell you the truth about your differences” (Q. 6: 162-164).

Secondly, the names and attributes of Allāh are his alone; no one shares any quality with Him or has any similitude with Him. He is unique; He is One.

لَيْسَ كَمِثْلِهِۦ شَىْءٌۭ ۖ وَهُوَ ٱلسَّمِيعُ ٱلْبَصِيرُ ١١

“…There is nothing like Him: He is the All Hearing, the All Seeing” (Q. 42:11).

وَلِلَّهِ ٱلْأَسْمَآءُ ٱلْحُسْنَىٰ فَٱدْعُوهُ بِهَا ۖ وَذَرُوا۟ ٱلَّذِينَ يُلْحِدُونَ فِىٓ أَسْمَـٰٓئِهِۦ ۚ سَيُجْزَوْنَ مَا كَانُوا۟ يَعْمَلُونَ ١٨٠

“The Most Excellent Names belong to God: use them to call on Him, and keep away from those who abuse them- they will be requited for what they do” (Q. 7:180).

قُلِ ٱدْعُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ أَوِ ٱدْعُوا۟ ٱلرَّحْمَـٰنَ ۖ أَيًّۭا مَّا تَدْعُوا۟ فَلَهُ ٱلْأَسْمَآءُ ٱلْحُسْنَىٰ ۚ وَلَا تَجْهَرْ بِصَلَاتِكَ وَلَا تُخَافِتْ بِهَا وَٱبْتَغِ بَيْنَ ذَٰلِكَ سَبِيلًۭا ١١٠

“Say [to them], ‘Call on God, or on the Lord of Mercy- whatever names you call Him, the best names belong to Him.’ [Prophet], do not be too loud in your prayer, or too quiet, but seek a middle way” (Q. 17:110).

ٱللَّهُ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ۖ لَهُ ٱلْأَسْمَآءُ ٱلْحُسْنَىٰ ٨

“God––there is no god but Him––the most excellent names belong to Him” (Q. 20:8).

هُوَ ٱللَّهُ ٱلَّذِى لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ۖ عَـٰلِمُ ٱلْغَيْبِ وَٱلشَّهَـٰدَةِ ۖ هُوَ ٱلرَّحْمَـٰنُ ٱلرَّحِيمُ ٢٢ هُوَ ٱللَّهُ ٱلَّذِى لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلْمَلِكُ ٱلْقُدُّوسُ ٱلسَّلَـٰمُ ٱلْمُؤْمِنُ ٱلْمُهَيْمِنُ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْجَبَّارُ ٱلْمُتَكَبِّرُ ۚ سُبْحَـٰنَ ٱللَّهِ عَمَّا يُشْرِكُونَ ٢٣ هُوَ ٱللَّهُ ٱلْخَـٰلِقُ ٱلْبَارِئُ ٱلْمُصَوِّرُ ۖ لَهُ ٱلْأَسْمَآءُ ٱلْحُسْنَىٰ ۚ يُسَبِّحُ لَهُۥ مَا فِى ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ ۖ وَهُوَ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْحَكِيمُ ٢٤

“He is God: there is no god other than Him. It is He who knows what is hidden as well as what is in the open, He is the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy. He is God: there is no god other than Him, the Controller, the Holy One, Source of Peace, Granter of Security, Guardian over all, the Almighty, the Compeller, the Truly Great; God is far above anything they consider to be His partner. He is God: the Creator, the Originator, the Shaper. The best names belong to Him. Everything in the heavens and earth glorifies Him: He is the Almighty, the Wise” (Q. 59:22-24)

Lastly, blessings, intercession, aid is from Allāh alone,

وَٱتَّقُوا۟ يَوْمًۭا لَّا تَجْزِى نَفْسٌ عَن نَّفْسٍۢ شَيْـًۭٔا وَلَا يُقْبَلُ مِنْهَا عَدْلٌۭ وَلَا تَنفَعُهَا شَفَـٰعَةٌۭ وَلَا هُمْ يُنصَرُونَ ١٢٣

“and beware of a Day when no soul can stand in for another. No compensation will be accepted from it, nor intercession be of use to it, nor will anyone be helped” (Q. 2:123).

“Say, ‘All intercession belongs to God alone; He holds control of the heavens and the earth; in the end you will all return to Him’” (Q. 39:44).

وَلَا يَمْلِكُ ٱلَّذِينَ يَدْعُونَ مِن دُونِهِ ٱلشَّفَـٰعَةَ إِلَّا مَن شَهِدَ بِٱلْحَقِّ وَهُمْ يَعْلَمُونَ ٨٦

“Those gods they invoke besides Him have no power of intercession, unlike those who bore witness to the truth and recognised it” (Q. 43:86).

إِيَّاكَ نَعْبُدُ وَإِيَّاكَ نَسْتَعِينُ ٥

“It is You we worship; it is You we ask for help” (Q. 1:5).