The ultimate truth - Quran - SufficientAllah

The ultimate truth - Quran

The Qurʾān serves as the ultimate testament of God’s will, communicated through revelations
to the Prophet Muḥammad by the angel Jibrīl over approximately 23 years in the 7th century
CE (Neuwirth 2013, 45). This text is often called the Qurʾān, but it is not its actual name.
Qurʾān is a verbal noun (maṣdar) of the Arabic verb qaraʼa (قرأ), meaning ‘he read’ or ‘he
recited’. This is parallel to the original name of the Hebrew Bible, ‘Mīqrāʾ’ א ָר ְק ִמ, meaning
recital, which Jewish biblical scholars use. At the same time, the secular term for the Hebrew
.תָ נָ״ְך ‘Tanakh ‘is Bible

The Qurʾān itself had not named itself and was simply a self-referential as “the recital”, which, as mentioned above, follows from the Abrahamic tradition. The Prophet’s companions decided to refer to the Qurʾān as the ‘Muṣḥaf’, meaning a compilation of Scripture, which refers to the written copy; however, the text itself does not have a specific name and shares the title the Recitation as did the previous revelations of God. The Qurʾān presents itself as a continuation of God’s revelation to humanity and is the final revelation confirming what came before it and clarifying the alterations of previous scriptures. This divine communication, a series of revelations in the Quraishi dialect of the Arabic language, is enshrined in the Qurʾān, which is the unaltered word of God. The complexity, depth, and literary grandeur of the Qurʾān have cemented its status not merely as a religious document but as a profound piece of Arabic literature (Rippin 2001, 34). A defining attribute of the Qurʾān is its self-awareness and divine protection, as illustrated in these verses:

إِنَّا نَحْنُ نَزَّلْنَا ٱلذِّكْرَ وَإِنَّا لَهُۥ لَحَـٰفِظُونَ ٩

“We have sent down the reminder Ourself, and We Ourself will guard it” (Q. 15:9).

This verse underscores the Qurʾānic assertion of its inerrancy and preservation, which is significant to its status as a timeless source of guidance for Muslims

كِتَـٰبٌ أَنزَلْنَـٰهُ إِلَيْكَ مُبَـٰرَكٌۭ لِّيَدَّبَّرُوٓا۟ ءَايَـٰتِهِۦ وَلِيَتَذَكَّرَ أُو۟لُوا۟ ٱلْأَلْبَـٰبِ ٢٩

“This is a blessed Scripture which We sent down to you [Muhammad], for people to think about its messages, and for those with understanding to take heed” (Q. 38:29)

وَهَـٰذَا كِتَـٰبٌ أَنزَلْنَـٰهُ مُبَارَكٌۭ فَٱتَّبِعُوهُ وَٱتَّقُوا۟ لَعَلَّكُمْ تُرْحَمُونَ ١٥٥

أَن تَقُولُوٓا۟ إِنَّمَآ أُنزِلَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبُ عَلَىٰ طَآئِفَتَيْنِ مِن قَبْلِنَا وَإِن كُنَّا عَن دِرَاسَتِهِمْ لَغَـٰفِلِينَ ١٥٦

“This, too, is a blessed Scripture which We have sent down; follow it and be conscious of your Lord, so that you may receive mercy – lest you say, ‘Scriptures were only sent down to two communities before us: we were not aware of what they studied” (Q. 6:155-156).

مَا كَانَ لِبَشَرٍ أَن يُؤْتِيَهُ ٱللَّهُ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ وَٱلْحُكْمَ وَٱلنُّبُوَّةَ ثُمَّ يَقُولَ لِلنَّاسِ كُونُوا۟ عِبَادًۭا لِّى مِن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ وَلَـٰكِن كُونُوا۟ رَبَّـٰنِيِّـۧنَ بِمَا كُنتُمْ تُعَلِّمُونَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ وَبِمَا كُنتُمْ تَدْرُسُونَ ٧٩

“No person to whom God had given the Scripture, wisdom, and prophethood would ever say to people, ‘Be my servants, not God’s.’ [He would say], ‘You should be devoted to God because you have taught the Scripture and studied it closely’” (Q. 3:79).

A summary of the Qurʾān’s message can be conveyed in the following verse,

ٱتَّبِعْ مَآ أُوحِىَ إِلَيْكَ مِن رَّبِّكَ ۖ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ۖ وَأَعْرِضْ عَنِ ٱلْمُشْرِكِينَ ١٠٦

“Follow what has been revealed to you from your Lord, there is no God but Him. Turn away from those who join other gods with Him” (Q. 6:106).

This verse underpins the principle of Tawḥīd, which constitutes the cornerstone of theology, and, thus, every aspect of faith and conduct. The Qurʾān is unique among religious scriptures in extensively addressing many subjects. Alongside spiritual matters, it offers insights into historical events, scientific phenomena, moral teachings, and guidelines for societal structures. For instance,

مِّنَ ٱلَّذِينَ هَادُوا۟ يُحَرِّفُونَ ٱلْكَلِمَ عَن مَّوَاضِعِهِۦ وَيَقُولُونَ سَمِعْنَا وَعَصَيْنَا وَٱسْمَعْ غَيْرَ مُسْمَعٍۢ وَرَٰعِنَا لَيًّۢا بِأَلْسِنَتِهِمْ وَطَعْنًۭا فِى ٱلدِّينِ ۚ وَلَوْ أَنَّهُمْ قَالُوا۟ سَمِعْنَا وَأَطَعْنَا وَٱسْمَعْ وَٱنظُرْنَا لَكَانَ خَيْرًۭا لَّهُمْ وَأَقْوَمَ وَلَـٰكِن لَّعَنَهُمُ ٱللَّهُ بِكُفْرِهِمْ فَلَا يُؤْمِنُونَ إِلَّا قَلِيلًۭا ٤٦

“Some Jews distort the meaning of [revealed] words: they say, ‘We hear and disobey,’ and ‘Listen,’ [adding the insult] ‘May you not hear,’ and ‘Raina [Look at us],’ twisting it abusively with their tongues so as to disparage religion. If they had said, ‘We hear and obey,’ ‘Listen,’ and ‘Unzurna [Look at us],’ that would have been better and more proper for them. But God has spurned them for their defiance; they believe very little” (Q. 4:46).

The Qurʾān holds unique designations that underscore its divine nature and function. The title of the Qurʾān, the ‘Furqān’, carries significant connotations that are integral to understanding the Qurʾān’s purpose. ‘Furqān’ is associated with the Qurʾān, appearing eight times. Derived from the Arabic root ‘farq’, which denotes ‘to separate’ or ‘to distinguish’, the Furqān is a criterion for discerning truth from falsehood (Abdel Haleem 2004, 36). This concept is encapsulated in the verse,

تَبَارَكَ ٱلَّذِى نَزَّلَ ٱلْفُرْقَانَ عَلَىٰ عَبْدِهِۦ لِيَكُونَ لِلْعَـٰلَمِينَ نَذِيرًا ١

“Blessed is He who sent down the Criterion to His servant, to be a warning to all beings” (Q. 25:1).

In this context, the Qurʾān as Furqān is perceived as a guide that allows believers to differentiate between moral and immoral, just and unjust, and ultimately, belief and disbelief. The Qurʾān’s function as a Furqān implies a profound connection with preceding Abrahamic scriptures. Much like the Torah, which is also described as a Furqān:

وَإِذْ ءَاتَيْنَا مُوسَى ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ وَٱلْفُرْقَانَ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَهْتَدُونَ ٥٣

“Remember when We gave Moses the Scripture, and the means to distinguish [right and wrong], so that you might be guided” (Q. 2:53).

The Qurʾān takes up the mantle of distinguishing right from wrong, echoing the legacy of divine guidance provided by the earlier scriptures. However, the Qurʾān as the final revelation also holds a corrective and confirmative function, acting as the ultimate criterion for faith and conduct (Lawrence 2006, 99). The concepts of the Furqān intersect in the Qurʾān’s role as a guide for exemplary behaviour, etiquette, and morals. As stated in the Qurʾān,

“Follow what has been revealed to you from your Lord; there is no God but Him. Turn away from those who join other gods with Him” (Q. 6:106).

The delivery of the Qurʾān to the Prophet Muḥammad by the Angel Jibrīl, across approximately twenty-three years, beginning in 610 CE until the Prophet’s demise in 632 CE, utilised multiple wordings (Ḥarf, sing. Ḥarf) to facilitate the early Muslim community’s understanding and memorisation of the Qurʾān (Melchert 2008, 63). The concept of the ‘Aḥruf’ is embedded within a broader framework of theology concerning the Qurʾānic revelation and preservation. It is sourced from several prophetic traditions (‘Ḥadīth’), the most famous of which, narrated by Ibn ʿAbbās, states, “The Qurʾān was revealed in seven Aḥruf” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 4991). In another, Umar ibn al-Khattab reported: I heard Hisham ibn Hakim reciting the Sura al-Furqān in a way different from how I recited it and how it was taught to me by the Messenger of Allah. I was about to argue with him, but then I waited until he finished, tied his shirt around his neck, and took him to the Prophet. I said, “Indeed, I heard this man recite in a way different from what you taught me!” The Prophet said to me, “Bring him to me.” Then, Prophet said to him, “Recite.” He recited, and the Prophet said, “As it has been revealed.” Then, the Prophet said to me, “Recite.” I recited, and the Prophet said, “As it has been revealed. Verily, the Quran has been revealed in seven dialects. Recite whichever of them you find easy” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī 2287, Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim 818).

Although scholars have a divergence of opinion regarding the precise definition of ‘Aḥruf’, the predominant view posits that they represent varying dialects, expressions, or wordings of the Qurʾān (Burton 1977, 81). This allowed the Qurʾān to be accessible to the Arab tribes,

each with unique dialect and linguistic nuances. The use of multiple wordings exemplifies the inherent flexibility in the Qurʾānic revelation, geared towards accommodating the linguistic diversity of the early Muslim community. As the Qurʾān states,

وَمَآ أَرْسَلْنَا مِن رَّسُولٍ إِلَّا بِلِسَانِ قَوْمِهِۦ لِيُبَيِّنَ لَهُمْ ۖ فَيُضِلُّ ٱللَّهُ مَن يَشَآءُ وَيَهْدِى مَن يَشَآءُ ۚ وَهُوَ ٱلْعَزِيزُ ٱلْحَكِيمُ ٤

“We have never sent a messenger who did not use his own people’s language to make things clear for them. But still God leaves whoever He will to stray, and guides whoever He will: He is the Almighty, the All Wise” (Q. 14:4).

The delivery of the Qurʾān in multiple Aḥruf aligns with this overarching principle of making divine guidance comprehensible and accessible. Furthermore, using multiple wordings served an inclusive purpose, bridging the gap between Arab tribes. By incorporating dialectical variations, the Qurʾān established itself as a text for all Arabs, regardless of their tribal affiliations or linguistic idiosyncrasies. In this way, the Qurʾān’s delivery promoted social cohesion and unity among a previously divided populace, reflecting the broader social transformation under the banner of Islam (Sells 1999, 48).

These multiple wordings were not divergent in meaning or content; they maintained the same message with slight linguistic variations. The integrity of the Qurʾān’s content across the Aḥruf was ensured by the meticulous process of revelation, where the Prophet Muḥammad would repeat the verses as they were revealed to him, confirming their correctness with Angel Jibrīl. Furthermore, the companions of the Prophet, designated as scribes, would document the revelations, forming the primary corpus of the Qurʾān (Dutton 1999, 70).

In the early years of Islam, transcribing the Qurʾānic revelations was a crucial task entrusted to a select group of individuals known as the scribes (Kātib, pl. Kuttab). They played an indispensable role in the preservation and propagation of the Qurʾān as they were responsible for the physical transcription of the divine revelations received by the Prophet Muḥammad.

The Prophet Muḥammad, although unlettered, directed the scribes in their task. The revelations were dictated to these scribes, who would then write them down on various materials available at the time, including parchment, leather, palm stalks, and shoulder blades of camels (Dutton 1999, 66). The Prophet would then have the written verses read back to him as a means of verification, ensuring their accuracy in recording the revealed verses.

The role of these scribes was crucial due to two primary factors. Firstly, the Qurʾān was initially preserved and disseminated through an oral culture that valued memorisation and Recitation. The scribes’ written records provided an additional layer of preservation that catered to an expanding community, gradually shifting towards a written culture (Stewart 2007, 165). These early transcripts served as reference points, alongside oral Recitation, facilitating the Qurʾān’s accurate transmission across different geographical locations.

Secondly, the Kuttab played a central role in managing the sequence of the Qurʾānic revelations. The order of the Qurʾānic verses (āyāt) and chapters (sūrahs) as we have today does not reflect the chronological order of their revelation. This arrangement was made under the guidance of the Prophet, with the Angel Jibrīl reviewing the entire Qurʾān with the Prophet each Ramadan and arranging the verses in their present order (Al-Itqan fi Ulum alQur’an, al-Suyuti 2007, 172). The scribes adjusted the written transcripts, ensuring they mirrored this divinely sanctioned order

The diligence of these early scribes was pivotal to the compilation of the Qurʾān into a single volume (muṣḥaf) during the caliphate of Abu Bakr. Zaid ibn Thabit was tasked with collecting all Qurʾānic materials, cross-verifying them with oral recitations, and compiling them into a single text (Siddique 2008, 202). This endeavour relied heavily on the accuracy of the scribes’ initial recordings and their preservation of the verses in their correct sequence.

With the subsequent spread of Islam beyond the Arabian Peninsula and the increasing number of converts unfamiliar with Arabic, a standardised Qurʾān text became necessary. This need led to the compilation of the ʿUthmānic codex’ during the caliphate of ʿUthmān bin ʿAffān. The scribes, including Zaid ibn Thabit, undertook this momentous task, producing several copies of the Qurʾān in the Quraishi dialect, which were then dispatched to the central provinces of the Empire (al-Azami 2003, 99).

The meticulous work of the early scribes laid the foundation for the Qurʾān as we have it today. Their dedication to the accurate transcription of the divine revelations ensured the Qurʾān’s preservation in its original form, fulfilling the divine promise stated in the Qurʾān,

إِنَّا نَحْنُ نَزَّلْنَا ٱلذِّكْرَ وَإِنَّا لَهُۥ لَحَـٰفِظُونَ ٩

“We have sent down the Quran Ourself, and We Ourself will guard it. Even before you [Prophet]” (Q. 15:9).

The consolidation of the Qurʾān into a singular, standardised text, known as the ʿUthmānic codex, marks a defining period in the early history of Islam. It was during the caliphate of the third caliph, ʿUthmān ibn ʿAffān, that this critical undertaking occurred, a pivotal response to the increasing linguistic and geographical diversity of the expanding Muslim community

The codification process was sparked by reported discrepancies in the Qurʾānic recitations among the Muslim troops during the campaign in Armenia and Azerbaijan (Burton 1977, 144). Ḥuḍayfah ibn al-Yamān, upon his return, urged Caliph ʿUthmān to “save this nation before they differ about the Book (the Qurʾān) as Jews and the Christians did before” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī, 4987). This plea signalled the urgency of unifying the Qurʾānic text to prevent the burgeoning Ummah from fragmentation over textual divergences.

Responding to this crucial concern, ʿUthmān assembled a committee headed by Zayd ibn Thābit and other notable Companions during the Prophet’s lifetime. Their primary task was to compile a universally accepted text, deriving from the existing Ṣuḥuf of Abu Bakr that was in the custody of Umm al-Muʾminīn Hafṣah (al-Azami 2003, 97).

One of the defining features of the ʿUthmānic codex was the retention of the Quraishi dialect, the dialect of the Prophet Muḥammad himself. The Qurʾān was initially revealed and recited in this dialect, a fact attested to in numerous ḥadīths (al-Suyūṭī 2007, 67). Given its clarity and eloquence, this particular dialect of Arabic held a high status within the Arabian Peninsula. By preserving the Qurʾān in this dialect, ʿUthmān ensured that the divine message retained its original linguistic style and beauty.

The decision to standardise the Qurʾān in the Quraishi dialect had significant implications. Notably, it helped to eliminate potential variations and discrepancies arising from dialectal differences across the Arabian Peninsula. This action, in effect, conserved the linguistic integrity of the Qurʾān while facilitating its memorisation and Recitation across diverse linguistic communities (Neuwirth 2014, 245).

The ʿUthmānic codex was then duplicated, and copies were dispatched to the central provinces of the expanding Empire. Simultaneously, all personal copies and transcripts were ordered to be destroyed, thereby unifying the Muslim Ummah under a single version of the Qurʾān (Al-Itqan fi Ulum al-Qur’an, al-Suyūṭī 2007, 172).

This decisive action by Caliph ʿUthmān, though met with some resistance, was largely successful in standardising the Qurʾānic text. The ʿUthmānic codex has since served as the unchallenged text of the Qurʾān for the Muslim Ummah worldwide, fulfilling the divine assurance of preservation as stated in the Qurʾānic,

إِنَّا نَحْنُ نَزَّلْنَا ٱلذِّكْرَ وَإِنَّا لَهُۥ لَحَـٰفِظُونَ ٩

“We have sent down the Quran Ourself, and We Ourself will guard it. Even before you [Prophet]” (Q. 15:9).

The survival of several manuscripts, notably the Ṣanʿāʾ manuscript and the Topkapi manuscript, thought to be among the original ʿUthmānic codices, provides tangible evidence of this early codification process (Sadeghi and Bergmann 2010, 362). These manuscripts, although showing minor textual variants, bear a remarkable resemblance to the standard ʿUthmānic text, affirming the success of this early codification in preserving the Qurʾān.

The Characterisation of God in the Qurʾān

The Qurʾān repeatedly emphasises God’s transcendence, asserting His unique oneness. This monotheistic principle is affirmed in the second chapter:

وَإِلَـٰهُكُمْ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ ۖ لَّآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلرَّحْمَـٰنُ ٱلرَّحِيمُ ١٦٣

“Your God is one God. There is no deity [worthy of worship] except Him, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful” (Q. 2:163).

This concept of monotheism, a distinguishing feature of Islam, sets it apart from polytheistic beliefs, reinforcing God’s incommensurability. Simultaneously, the Qurʾān also describes God using a set of 99 attributes or “beautiful names” (al-asmāʾ al-ḥusnā). These include names that evoke God’s mercy and compassion, such as al-Raḥmān and al-Raḥīm. Other names represent God’s knowledge and power, such as al-ʿAlīm (the All-Knowing) and al-Qādir (the All-Powerful).

The divine attributes paint a picture of a God who is transcendent, immanent, and actively involved in creation. For example, the name al-Razzāq (the Provider) indicates God’s active provision for every creature’s sustenance,

إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ هُوَ ٱلرَّزَّاقُ ذُو ٱلْقُوَّةِ ٱلْمَتِينُ ٥٨

Similarly, the title al-Hādī (the Guide) illustrates His role in guiding humanity morally and spiritually,

۞ لَّيْسَ عَلَيْكَ هُدَىٰهُمْ وَلَـٰكِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَهْدِى مَن يَشَآءُ ۗ وَمَا تُنفِقُوا۟ مِنْ خَيْرٍۢ فَلِأَنفُسِكُمْ ۚ وَمَا تُنفِقُونَ إِلَّا ٱبْتِغَآءَ وَجْهِ ٱللَّهِ ۚ وَمَا تُنفِقُوا۟ مِنْ خَيْرٍۢ يُوَفَّ إِلَيْكُمْ وَأَنتُمْ لَا تُظْلَمُونَ ٢٧٢

“It is not for you [Prophet] to guide them; it is God who guides whoever He will. Whatever charity you give benefits your own soul, provided you do it for the sake of God: whatever you give will be repaid to you in full, and you will not be wronged” (Q. 2:272).

Yet, the Qurʾān clarifies that these names do not represent separate aspects of God but somewhat different ways of understanding the same, indivisible divine essence. As the 112th sūra proclaims,

قُلْ هُوَ ٱللَّهُ أَحَدٌ ١

ٱللَّهُ ٱلصَّمَدُ ٢

لَمْ يَلِدْ وَلَمْ يُولَدْ ٣

وَلَمْ يَكُن لَّهُۥ كُفُوًا أَحَدٌۢ ٤

“He is Allah, [who is] One. Allah, the Eternal Refuge. He neither begets nor is born, Nor is there to Him any equivalent” (Q. 112:1-4).

The Qurʾān also often describes God in relational terms, emphasising His interactions with creation. God is portrayed as the Creator (al-Khāliq), who brought the universe and all within it into existence,

بَدِيعُ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ ۖ أَنَّىٰ يَكُونُ لَهُۥ وَلَدٌۭ وَلَمْ تَكُن لَّهُۥ صَـٰحِبَةٌۭ ۖ وَخَلَقَ كُلَّ شَىْءٍۢ ۖ وَهُوَ بِكُلِّ شَىْءٍ عَلِيمٌۭ ١٠١

“the Creator of the heavens and earth! How could He have children when He has no spouse, when He created all things, and has full knowledge of all things?” (Q. 6:101).

The Sustainer (al-Muqīt), who provides for all creatures,

مَّن يَشْفَعْ شَفَـٰعَةً حَسَنَةًۭ يَكُن لَّهُۥ نَصِيبٌۭ مِّنْهَا ۖ وَمَن يَشْفَعْ شَفَـٰعَةًۭ سَيِّئَةًۭ يَكُن لَّهُۥ كِفْلٌۭ مِّنْهَا ۗ وَكَانَ ٱللَّهُ عَلَىٰ كُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ مُّقِيتًۭا ٨٥

“Whoever speaks for a good cause will share in its benefits, and whoever speaks for a bad cause will share in its burden: God controls everything” (Q. 4:85).

The Judge (al-Ḥakam), who will judge all beings on the Day of Judgment,

ٱللَّهُ يَحْكُمُ بَيْنَكُمْ يَوْمَ ٱلْقِيَـٰمَةِ فِيمَا كُنتُمْ فِيهِ تَخْتَلِفُونَ ٦٩

“On the Day of Resurrection, God will judge between you regarding your differences” (Q. 22:69).

Notably, God’s mercy and compassion are underscored throughout the Qurʾān. God is often described as “towards the people merciful and compassionate” (Q. 2:143). This mercy is not limited but is described as encompassing all things (Q. 7:156), demonstrating the expansiveness of God’s benevolence.

Nevertheless, the Qurʾān also describes God’s wrath and punishment, predominantly due to human disbelief and misdeeds (Q. 2:7). This portrayal instils a profound sense of moral responsibility and accountability among the believers. It balances the images of divine mercy and kindness, underscoring the need for justice and the ultimate consequences of moral choices.

It is also worth mentioning the accessibility and approachability of God in the Qurʾān. God is consistently described as being near His servants, hearing their prayers, and responding to their calls. As stated in the Qurʾān,

وَإِذَا سَأَلَكَ عِبَادِى عَنِّى فَإِنِّى قَرِيبٌ ۖ أُجِيبُ دَعْوَةَ ٱلدَّاعِ إِذَا دَعَانِ ۖ فَلْيَسْتَجِيبُوا۟ لِى وَلْيُؤْمِنُوا۟ بِى لَعَلَّهُمْ يَرْشُدُونَ ١٨٦

“[Prophet], if My servants ask you about Me, I am near. I respond to those who call Me, so let them respond to Me, and believe in Me, so that they may be guided” (Q. 2:186).

This proximity and responsiveness reinforce the personal connection between the individual believer and God, encouraging a sense of intimacy and personal relationship in the faith. The Qurʾān’s characterisation of God, therefore, not only reflects on divine ontology but also shapes the believer’s relationship with the divine. This relationship is anchored in the core principles of the faith, including tawḥīd, Risāla, and ākhira. The divine characterisation of the Qurʾān provides a lofty and intimate understanding of God, inspiring awe and reverence while fostering love and closeness. This intricate portrayal of God, with its profound implications for individual and communal life, forms the heart of the faith and contributes significantly to its theological, spiritual, and ethical richness.

In the Qurʾān, the relationships between God, His friends (ʾAwliyāʾ), and His enemies are established in intricate detail, illuminating a framework of divine-human interaction predicated on moral, spiritual, and theological considerations.

The Qurʾān presents God’s ‘friends’ or ʾAwliyāʾ as those who believe and act righteously. The term ʾAwliyāʾ, often translated as ‘friends,’ ‘protectors,’ or ‘allies,’ indicates a special relationship of closeness and alliance with God. For instance, the Qurʾān states,

أَلَآ إِنَّ أَوْلِيَآءَ ٱللَّهِ لَا خَوْفٌ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا هُمْ يَحْزَنُونَ ٦٢

ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ وَكَانُوا۟ يَتَّقُونَ ٦٣

لَهُمُ ٱلْبُشْرَىٰ فِى ٱلْحَيَوٰةِ ٱلدُّنْيَا وَفِى ٱلْـَٔاخِرَةِ ۚ لَا تَبْدِيلَ لِكَلِمَـٰتِ ٱللَّهِ ۚ ذَٰلِكَ هُوَ ٱلْفَوْزُ ٱلْعَظِيمُ ٦٤

“But for those who are on God’s side (ʾAwliyāʾ Allāh), there is no fear, nor shall they grieve. For those who believe and are conscious of God for them, there is good news in this life and in the Hereafter- there is no changing the promises of God- that is truly the supreme triumph” (Q. 10:62-64).

These verses highlight faith (īmān) and piety (taqwā) as defining features of the ʾAwliyāʾ. On the other hand, the Qurʾān’s portrayal of God’s enemies is typified by disbelief (kufr), rejection of God’s signs (āyāt), and moral transgression. They are often warned of divine punishment in this life and the hereafter,

فَأَمَّا ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ فَأُعَذِّبُهُمْ عَذَابًۭا شَدِيدًۭا فِى ٱلدُّنْيَا وَٱلْـَٔاخِرَةِ وَمَا لَهُم مِّن نَّـٰصِرِينَ ٥٦

“I will make the disbelievers suffer severely in this world and the next; no one will help them’” (Q. 3:56).

Notably, this animosity is not based on personal enmity but reflects a rejection of God’s guidance and an unwillingness to accept the divine message delivered by the prophets.

The Qurʾān does not present these categories as fixed or immutable. Individuals have the capacity for moral and spiritual change. Disbelievers can become believers, and those who have sinned can seek forgiveness and reform their behaviour. The Qurʾān states,

۞ قُلْ يَـٰعِبَادِىَ ٱلَّذِينَ أَسْرَفُوا۟ عَلَىٰٓ أَنفُسِهِمْ لَا تَقْنَطُوا۟ مِن رَّحْمَةِ ٱللَّهِ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَغْفِرُ ٱلذُّنُوبَ جَمِيعًا ۚ إِنَّهُۥ هُوَ ٱلْغَفُورُ ٱلرَّحِيمُ ٥٣

“Say, ‘O My servants who have transgressed against themselves [by sinning], do not despair of the mercy of Allah. Indeed, Allah forgives all sins. Indeed, it is He who is the Forgiving, the Merciful'” (Q. 39:53).

This emphasis on divine mercy and forgiveness illustrates the potential for spiritual transformation, even for those previously at odds with God. The relationships between God, His friends, and His enemies in the Qurʾān are intrinsically tied to notions of divine justice. The Qurʾān frequently reminds its readers that while God is the Most Merciful (al-Raḥmān), He is also the Most Just (al-ʿAdl), and His judgement will reflect the perfect balance of these attributes. God’s friends will be rewarded for their faith and piety, while His enemies will face the consequences of their disbelief and transgressions.

Yet, in the Qurʾānic worldview, God’s mercy invariably overshadows His wrath. As the Qurʾān repeatedly asserts,

وَإِذَا جَآءَكَ ٱلَّذِينَ يُؤْمِنُونَ بِـَٔايَـٰتِنَا فَقُلْ سَلَـٰمٌ عَلَيْكُمْ ۖ كَتَبَ رَبُّكُمْ عَلَىٰ نَفْسِهِ ٱلرَّحْمَةَ ۖ أَنَّهُۥ مَنْ عَمِلَ مِنكُمْ سُوٓءًۢا بِجَهَـٰلَةٍۢ ثُمَّ تَابَ مِنۢ بَعْدِهِۦ وَأَصْلَحَ فَأَنَّهُۥ غَفُورٌۭ رَّحِيمٌۭ ٥٤

“When those who believe in Our revelations come to you [Prophet], say, ‘Peace be upon you. Your Lord has taken it on Himself to be merciful: if any of you has foolishly done a bad deed, and afterwards repented and mended his ways, God is most forgiving and most merciful’” (Q. 6:54).

This verse suggests that even the so-called ‘enemies of God’ are not beyond the reach of divine compassion. God’s judgement, therefore, is always tempered by His mercy, and the door to repentance and reform is perennially open. Furthermore, the Qurʾānic portrayal of these relationships provides believers with an ethical and spiritual guide. The ʾAwliyāʾ are role models, exemplifying faith and virtuous conduct, while the depiction of God’s enemies is a stern warning against disbelief and immoral behaviour. Thus, the Qurʾān provides moral guidance and encourages the pursuit of spiritual excellence (iḥsān).

Another noteworthy aspect is the Qurʾān’s emphasis on the relational dynamics between God and humanity. God’s friends are promised His support, guidance, and protection in worldly life and the Hereafter (Q. 10:62-64). This divine patronage is a significant aspect of the believers’ relationship with God, reinforcing their faith and trust in Him. Conversely, God’s enemies are warned of divine chastisement, a consequence of their rejection of God’s guidance. This punitive element is not driven by religious animosity but manifests divine justice (ʿadl) and upholds moral and spiritual order

The Qurʾān and the Completion of Abrahamic Law

The Qurʾān is firmly anchored in the Abrahamic tradition, acknowledging the continuity of prophetic messages while establishing itself as the final, definitive revelation. This acknowledgement is not merely a historical affirmation; it carries significant theological and moral implications that shape the Qurʾānic worldview.

Abraham (Ibrāhīm) occupies a central position in the Qurʾān’s depiction of prophetic history. Described as a ‘model’ (uswah, Q. 16:120), a ‘nation’ (ummatan, Q. 16:120), and a ‘righteous man’ (Q. 37:110), Abraham embodies the paradigm of monotheistic faith and moral excellence. Notably, the Qurʾān identifies him as a monotheist, a Muslim’ (Q. 3:67), a terminology that characterises Abraham’s religious stance and positions him within the trajectory that culminates in the faith.

The Qurʾān confirms the validity of the previous revelations given to Abraham, Moses (Mūsā), and Jesus (ʿĪsā), among others, emphasising their important message of monotheism and ethical conduct. It states,

وَأَنزَلْنَآ إِلَيْكَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ بِٱلْحَقِّ مُصَدِّقًۭا لِّمَا بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ مِنَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ وَمُهَيْمِنًا عَلَيْهِ ۖ فَٱحْكُم بَيْنَهُم بِمَآ أَنزَلَ ٱللَّهُ ۖ وَلَا تَتَّبِعْ أَهْوَآءَهُمْ عَمَّا جَآءَكَ مِنَ ٱلْحَقِّ ۚ لِكُلٍّۢ جَعَلْنَا مِنكُمْ شِرْعَةًۭ وَمِنْهَاجًۭا ۚ وَلَوْ شَآءَ ٱللَّهُ لَجَعَلَكُمْ أُمَّةًۭ وَٰحِدَةًۭ وَلَـٰكِن لِّيَبْلُوَكُمْ فِى مَآ ءَاتَىٰكُمْ ۖ فَٱسْتَبِقُوا۟ ٱلْخَيْرَٰتِ ۚ إِلَى ٱللَّهِ مَرْجِعُكُمْ جَمِيعًۭا فَيُنَبِّئُكُم بِمَا كُنتُمْ فِيهِ تَخْتَلِفُونَ ٤٨

“We sent to you [Muhammad] the Scripture with the truth, confirming the Scriptures that came before it, and with final authority over them: so judge between them according to what God has sent down. Do not follow their whims, which deviate from the truth that has come to you. We have assigned a law and a path to each of you. If God had so willed, He would have made you one community, but He wanted to test you through that which He has given you, so race to do good: you will all return to God, and He will make clear to you the matters you differed about” (Q. 5:48).

This verse underscores the Qurʾān’s perception of itself as a confirmation of previous revelations and a supervisory authority that verifies and clarifies their messages. However, the Qurʾān also delineates its unique role within this tradition. While affirming the continuity of the prophetic messages as the culmination and perfection of this line of revelation. As such, it is described as a ‘criterion’,

تَبَارَكَ ٱلَّذِى نَزَّلَ ٱلْفُرْقَانَ عَلَىٰ عَبْدِهِۦ لِيَكُونَ لِلْعَـٰلَمِينَ نَذِيرًا ١

“Exalted is He who has sent the Differentiator down to His servant so that it may be a warning to all people” (Q. 25:1).

The Qurʾān discerns the truth from falsehood and a ‘guidance’,

شَهْرُ رَمَضَانَ ٱلَّذِىٓ أُنزِلَ فِيهِ ٱلْقُرْءَانُ هُدًۭى لِّلنَّاسِ وَبَيِّنَـٰتٍۢ مِّنَ ٱلْهُدَىٰ وَٱلْفُرْقَانِ ۚ فَمَن شَهِدَ مِنكُمُ ٱلشَّهْرَ فَلْيَصُمْهُ ۖ وَمَن كَانَ مَرِيضًا أَوْ عَلَىٰ سَفَرٍۢ فَعِدَّةٌۭ مِّنْ أَيَّامٍ أُخَرَ ۗ يُرِيدُ ٱللَّهُ بِكُمُ ٱلْيُسْرَ وَلَا يُرِيدُ بِكُمُ ٱلْعُسْرَ وَلِتُكْمِلُوا۟ ٱلْعِدَّةَ وَلِتُكَبِّرُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ عَلَىٰ مَا هَدَىٰكُمْ وَلَعَلَّكُمْ تَشْكُرُونَ ١٨٥

“It was in the month of Ramadan that the Quran was revealed as guidance for mankind, clear messages giving guidance and distinguishing between right and wrong. So any of you present that month should fast, and anyone who is ill or on a journey should make up for the lost days by fasting on other days later. God wants ease for you, not hardship. He wants you to complete the prescribed period and to glorify Him for having guided you, so that you may be thankful” (Q. 2:185).

The Qurʾānic interpretation of the Abrahamic tradition has significant implications for its conception of religious diversity. It acknowledges the shared Abrahamic roots of Judaism and Christianity, affirming the spiritual and moral truths contained in their scriptures. However, it also points out the human alterations and misinterpretations that have entered these traditions over time, necessitating the Qurʾān’s role as a corrective and clarifying authority. This nuanced position allows the Qurʾān to affirm its continuity with the Abrahamic tradition while simultaneously highlighting its unique role and message. The Qurʾān consistently refers to itself as a confirmatory revelation,

“We sent to you [Muhammad] the Scripture with the truth, confirming the Scriptures that came before it, and with final authority over them: so judge between them according to what God has sent down. Do not follow their whims, which deviate from the truth that has come to you. We have assigned a law and a path to each of you. If God had so willed, He would have made you one community, but He wanted to test you through that which He has given you, so race to do good: you will all return to God and He will make clear to you the matters you differed about” (Q. 5:48).

This verse signifies its affirmation of the truths of the preceding Abrahamic scriptures. Simultaneously, it declares itself as Muhaymin (supervisory, guardian) over them, an attribute denoting its capacity to authenticate the actual teachings of the previous scriptures and correct any distortions or misinterpretations. This role emerges from the Qurʾān being a ‘criterion’ (furqān) that distinguishes truth from falsehood (Q. 25:1).

In fulfilling this role, the Qurʾān introduces the concept of ‘completion’ or ‘perfection’ of the divine guidance that commenced with the Abrahamic tradition. It achieves this in several key ways.

First, the Qurʾān ‘completes’ the Abrahamic law by providing a comprehensive code of life that governs all aspects of human conduct. It extends the Abrahamic ethical mandate to include a detailed social, economic, political, and personal ethics system that integrates the spiritual and temporal domains. This vision of ethical comprehensiveness is encapsulated in the Qurʾānic verse,

وَمَا مِن دَآبَّةٍۢ فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ وَلَا طَـٰٓئِرٍۢ يَطِيرُ بِجَنَاحَيْهِ إِلَّآ أُمَمٌ أَمْثَالُكُم ۚ مَّا فَرَّطْنَا فِى ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ مِن شَىْءٍۢ ۚ ثُمَّ إِلَىٰ رَبِّهِمْ يُحْشَرُونَ ٣٨

“all the creatures that crawl on the earth and those that fly with their wings are communities like yourselves. We have missed nothing out of the Record- in the end they will be gathered to their Lord” (Q. 6:38).

Second, the Qurʾān ‘completes’ the Abrahamic law by resolving ambiguities and clarifying misinterpretations in the previous scriptures. This role is explicitly stated in several Qurʾānic verses, such as,

يَـٰٓأَهْلَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ قَدْ جَآءَكُمْ رَسُولُنَا يُبَيِّنُ لَكُمْ كَثِيرًۭا مِّمَّا كُنتُمْ تُخْفُونَ مِنَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ وَيَعْفُوا۟ عَن كَثِيرٍۢ ۚ قَدْ جَآءَكُم مِّنَ ٱللَّهِ نُورٌۭ وَكِتَـٰبٌۭ مُّبِينٌۭ ١٥

It thus acts as a clarifying authority confirming the true teachings and rectifying the Abrahamic tradition’s distortions. Third, the Qurʾān ‘completes’ the Abrahamic law by reaffirming the core message of monotheism (tawḥīd) and restoring it to its original purity. It critiques the polytheistic practices and doctrinal deviations that had infiltrated the Abrahamic tradition, returning to the unadulterated monotheism epitomised by Abraham,

وَقَالُوا۟ كُونُوا۟ هُودًا أَوْ نَصَـٰرَىٰ تَهْتَدُوا۟ ۗ قُلْ بَلْ مِلَّةَ إِبْرَٰهِـۧمَ حَنِيفًۭا ۖ وَمَا كَانَ مِنَ ٱلْمُشْرِكِينَ ١٣٥

“They say, ‘Become Jews or Christians, and you will be rightly guided.’ Say [Prophet], ‘No, [ours is] the religion of Abraham, the upright, who did not worship any god besides God.” (Q. 2:135).

Finally, the Qurʾān ‘completes’ the Abrahamic Law by introducing the concept of universality. While the previous scriptures were primarily addressed to specific communities, the Qurʾān presents itself as a universal message for all of humanity,

وَمَآ أَرْسَلْنَـٰكَ إِلَّا رَحْمَةًۭ لِّلْعَـٰلَمِينَ ١٠٧

“It was only as a mercy that We sent you [Prophet] to all people” (Q. 21:107).

It thus completes the trajectory of the Abrahamic revelations by expanding their scope to encompass the entirety of the human community.

Chronicles of Prophets and the Journey of Abrahamic Religion

The Qurʾān offers a wealth of narratives encompassing various Prophets within its verses, weaving a tapestry of interconnected stories that communicate core theological and ethical teachings. Drawing from the common heritage of the Abrahamic tradition, the Qurʾānic accounts of Prophets often echo, extend, and, at times, challenge their biblical counterparts.

Prominent among these accounts is the story of Adam (Q. 2:30-39), which sets the theological backdrop for human existence and moral responsibility. Unlike the Biblical narrative, the Qurʾān emphasises Adam’s role as a vicegerent (khalīfa) on Earth, reflecting the worldview of humans as trustees of God’s creation. Moreover, the Qurʾānic rendition underscores the notion of God’s mercy and forgiveness following Adam’s repentance, establishing a framework of hope and redemption rather than original sin.

The Qurʾānic narratives about Prophets such as Noah (Nūḥ), Abraham (Ibrāhīm), Moses (Mūsā), and Jesus (ʿĪsā) are replete with motifs of monotheism, prophetic resilience, and moral uprightness. For example, the story of Abraham (Q. 2:124-141) portrays him as a model of monotheistic devotion, challenging the polytheism of his people and undergoing trials in his quest for truth. Similarly, the account of Moses (Q. 20:9-98), while sharing several elements with the Biblical Exodus narrative, emphasises the transformative power of divine revelation and prophetic leadership.

Uniquely, the Qurʾānic narratives often eschew chronological ordering, instead weaving the stories of different Prophets together in a thematic arrangement. This narrative technique facilitates the extraction of moral and theological lessons across other prophetic stories, reinforcing the Qurʾān’s broader ethical and spiritual messages.

A distinct aspect of the Qurʾānic accounts of Prophets is their depiction as mortal, fallible beings who, despite their prophethood, are not immune to human emotions or moral struggles. For example, the story of Jonah (Yūnus) highlights his moment of despair in the belly of the whale, serving as a poignant reminder of divine mercy and the importance of patience and repentance,

وَذَا ٱلنُّونِ إِذ ذَّهَبَ مُغَـٰضِبًۭا فَظَنَّ أَن لَّن نَّقْدِرَ عَلَيْهِ فَنَادَىٰ فِى ٱلظُّلُمَـٰتِ أَن لَّآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّآ أَنتَ سُبْحَـٰنَكَ إِنِّى كُنتُ مِنَ ٱلظَّـٰلِمِينَ ٨٧

“And remember the man with the whale when he went off angrily, thinking We could not restrict him, but then he cried out in the deep darkness, ‘There is no God but You, glory be to You, I was wrong” (Q. 21:87).

Interestingly, the Qurʾān also introduces narratives about Prophets who are not mentioned in the Bible, such as Ṣāliḥ and Hūd, further broadening the prophetic panorama within the Qurʾānic text. These narratives, addressing specific Arabian communities, enrich the Qurʾānic portrayal of prophethood and reinforce its messages of monotheism, ethical responsibility, and divine judgement.

The Qurʾān’s depiction of Jesus is of particular interest, presenting a narrative that bridges Jewish and Christian perspectives while introducing unique interpretations. The Qurʾān affirms Jesus’ virgin birth,

قَالَتْ أَنَّىٰ يَكُونُ لِى غُلَـٰمٌۭ وَلَمْ يَمْسَسْنِى بَشَرٌۭ وَلَمْ أَكُ بَغِيًّۭا ٢٠

قَالَ كَذَٰلِكِ قَالَ رَبُّكِ هُوَ عَلَىَّ هَيِّنٌۭ ۖ وَلِنَجْعَلَهُۥٓ ءَايَةًۭ لِّلنَّاسِ وَرَحْمَةًۭ مِّنَّا ۚ وَكَانَ أَمْرًۭا مَّقْضِيًّۭا ٢١

“She said, ‘How can I have a son when no man has touched me? I have not been unchaste, and he said, ‘This is what your Lord said: “It is easy for Me- We shall make him a sign to all people, a blessing from Us” (Q. 19:20-21).

Jesus’ prophetic mission, and his performance of miracles, yet it unequivocally rejects his divinity,

لَقَدْ كَفَرَ ٱلَّذِينَ قَالُوٓا۟ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ هُوَ ٱلْمَسِيحُ ٱبْنُ مَرْيَمَ ۖ وَقَالَ ٱلْمَسِيحُ يَـٰبَنِىٓ إِسْرَٰٓءِيلَ ٱعْبُدُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ رَبِّى وَرَبَّكُمْ ۖ إِنَّهُۥ مَن يُشْرِكْ بِٱللَّهِ فَقَدْ حَرَّمَ ٱللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ ٱلْجَنَّةَ وَمَأْوَىٰهُ ٱلنَّارُ ۖ وَمَا لِلظَّـٰلِمِينَ مِنْ أَنصَارٍۢ ٧٢

Those who say, ‘God is the Messiah, son of Mary,’ have defied God. The Messiah himself said, ‘Children of Israel, worship God, my Lord and your Lord.’ If anyone associates others with God, God will forbid him from the Garden, and Hell will be his home. No one will help such evildoers. (Q. 5:72).

As well as a rejection of the doctrine of the Trinity,

لَّقَدْ كَفَرَ ٱلَّذِينَ قَالُوٓا۟ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ ثَالِثُ ثَلَـٰثَةٍۢ ۘ وَمَا مِنْ إِلَـٰهٍ إِلَّآ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ ۚ وَإِن لَّمْ يَنتَهُوا۟ عَمَّا يَقُولُونَ لَيَمَسَّنَّ ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ مِنْهُمْ عَذَابٌ أَلِيمٌ ٧٣

Those people who say that God is the third of three are defying [the truth]: there is only One God. If they persist in what they are saying, a painful punishment will afflict those who persist. (Q. 5:73).

In the Qurʾān, the narrative of the Abrahamic tradition occupies a central place, serving as a theological and historical axis around which the text constructs its religious worldview. The Qurʾān portrays Abraham (Ibrāhīm) not only as a historical figure and a Prophet but also as the archetypal monotheist whose legacy underpins the subsequent Abrahamic faiths, namely Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

The Qurʾān’s depiction of Abraham highlights his uncompromising monotheism and his struggle against polytheism (Q. 6:74-83), presenting him as a model for Muslims. His story exemplifies monotheistic devotion, and his character and actions embody the Qurʾānic ethos of faith, obedience, and perseverance.

Moreover, the Qurʾān also traces the line of Prophethood through Abraham’s descendants, particularly through Isaac (Isḥāq) and Ishmael (Ismāʿīl), thereby linking the foundations of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. It recognises the Prophets of the Israelite tradition, including Moses (Mūsā) and Jesus (ʿĪsā), affirming their divine missions and the revelations they received,

وَلَقَدْ ءَاتَيْنَا مُوسَى ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ وَقَفَّيْنَا مِنۢ بَعْدِهِۦ بِٱلرُّسُلِ ۖ وَءَاتَيْنَا عِيسَى ٱبْنَ مَرْيَمَ ٱلْبَيِّنَـٰتِ وَأَيَّدْنَـٰهُ بِرُوحِ ٱلْقُدُسِ ۗ أَفَكُلَّمَا جَآءَكُمْ رَسُولٌۢ بِمَا لَا تَهْوَىٰٓ أَنفُسُكُمُ ٱسْتَكْبَرْتُمْ فَفَرِيقًۭا كَذَّبْتُمْ وَفَرِيقًۭا تَقْتُلُونَ ٨٧

“We gave Moses the Scripture and We sent messengers after him in succession. We gave Jesus, son of Mary, clear signs and strengthened him with the Holy Spirit. So how is it that, whenever a messenger brings you something you do not like, you become arrogant, calling some impostors and killing others?” (Q. 2:87).

Yet, the Qurʾān also critically engages with the religious communities of Jews and Christians. It affirms the divine origin of their scriptures, the Torah and the Gospel, while critiquing their interpretation and application. For instance, the Qurʾān accuses the Jewish community of distorting the meanings of their scriptures,

Some Jews distort the meaning of [revealed] words: they say, ‘We hear and disobey,’ and ‘Listen,’ [adding the insult] ‘May you not hear,’ and ‘Raina [Look at us],’ twisting it abusively with their tongues to disparage religion. If they had said, ‘We hear and obey,’ ‘Listen,’ and ‘Unzurna [Look at us],’ that would have been better and more proper for them. However, God has spurned them for their defiance; they believe very little. (Q. 4:46)

As well as, criticises the Christian doctrine of the divinity of Jesus,

“Those who say, ‘God is the Messiah, son of Mary,’ have defied God. The Messiah himself said, ‘Children of Israel, worship God, my Lord and your Lord.’ If anyone associates others with God, God will forbid him from the Garden, and Hell will be his home. No one will help such evildoers” (Q. 5:72).

Interestingly, the Qurʾān extends its narrative beyond the confines of historical Judaism and Christianity, highlighting the shared heritage and divergences in religious thought. It asserts the arrival of Prophet Muḥammad as the ‘Seal of the Prophets’ (Q. 33:40), positioning Islam as the final and complete manifestation of the Abrahamic tradition. Muḥammad’s mission, the Qurʾān posits, aims to rectify deviations, fulfil the prophecy of a final messenger (Q. 7:157), and establish the universal message of monotheism (Q. 21:107).

The Qurʾān repeatedly emphasises its function as a confirmation and a guardian over the previous scriptures (Q. 5:48), underscoring the continuity of divine revelation within the Abrahamic tradition. The Qurʾān, in its view, provides the definitive interpretation of God’s will, revealing the original monotheistic faith (‘the religion of truth’) as instituted by Abraham and transmitted through successive Prophets (Q. 3:19).

The Use of Parables in the Qurʾān

The Qurʾān’s characteristic use of parables referred to as ‘amthal’ (singular: mathal), underscores the text’s intent to engage with its audience cognitively and emotionally (Haleem 2005). Qurʾānic parables are meant to drive home spiritual, moral, and social insights through metaphorical narratives and illustrative examples, offering a unique lens through which both pre- and post-Abrahamic scenarios can be evaluated. The Qurʾān explains the function of its parables, stating

أَيَوَدُّ أَحَدُكُمْ أَن تَكُونَ لَهُۥ جَنَّةٌۭ مِّن نَّخِيلٍۢ وَأَعْنَابٍۢ تَجْرِى مِن تَحْتِهَا ٱلْأَنْهَـٰرُ لَهُۥ فِيهَا مِن كُلِّ ٱلثَّمَرَٰتِ وَأَصَابَهُ ٱلْكِبَرُ وَلَهُۥ ذُرِّيَّةٌۭ ضُعَفَآءُ فَأَصَابَهَآ إِعْصَارٌۭ فِيهِ نَارٌۭ فَٱحْتَرَقَتْ ۗ كَذَٰلِكَ يُبَيِّنُ ٱللَّهُ لَكُمُ ٱلْـَٔايَـٰتِ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَتَفَكَّرُونَ ٢٦٦

“Would any of you like to have a garden of palm trees and vines, graced with flowing streams and all kinds of produce, which, when you are afflicted with old age and feeble offspring, is struck by a fiery whirlwind and burnt down? In this way, God makes His messages clear to you, so that you may reflect on them” (Q. 2:266).

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipiscing elit. Ut elit tellus, luctus nec ullamcorper mattis, pulvinar dapibus leo.They provide a vehicle for communicating complex, understandable spiritual truths to a diverse audience, effectively transcending time, place, and cultural context. This use of parables aligns the Qurʾān with other scriptural texts, such as the parables used in the Christian New Testament (Haleem 2005). Notably, the Qurʾān employs pre-Abrahamic parables in several instances. For instance, it refers to the ancient civilisation of ‘Ad and their influential leader Hud, whose story is a cautionary tale about arrogance and the perils of rejecting divine guidance (Q. 7:65-72). Similarly, the story of the Pharaoh and Moses, though post-Abrahamic in chronology, is a reiteration of an older, pre-Abrahamic motif: the divine confrontation with tyrannical power, typifying the struggle between good and evil (Q. 28:3- 42).

Post-Abrahamic parables, on the other hand, resonate with themes more directly associated with monotheistic faith. A particularly evocative parable is that of the ‘Good Word’, likened to a good tree,

أَلَمْ تَرَ كَيْفَ ضَرَبَ ٱللَّهُ مَثَلًۭا كَلِمَةًۭ طَيِّبَةًۭ كَشَجَرَةٍۢ طَيِّبَةٍ أَصْلُهَا ثَابِتٌۭ وَفَرْعُهَا فِى ٱلسَّمَآءِ ٢٤

تُؤْتِىٓ أُكُلَهَا كُلَّ حِينٍۭ بِإِذْنِ رَبِّهَا ۗ وَيَضْرِبُ ٱللَّهُ ٱلْأَمْثَالَ لِلنَّاسِ لَعَلَّهُمْ يَتَذَكَّرُونَ ٢٥

“[Prophet], do you not see how God makes comparisons? A good word is like a good tree whose root is firm and whose branches are high in the sky, yielding constant fruit by its Lord’s leave- God makes such comparisons for people so that they may reflect” (Q. 14:24- 25).

This parable underscores the enduring, nourishing nature of truth, akin to the vitality and productivity of a firmly rooted tree. It is an image directly relatable to the agricultural societies that populated the Arabian Peninsula and the Levant, thus highlighting the Qurʾān’s conscious endeavour to communicate in a language and style familiar to its audience.

The Qurʾānic parables bridge the divine message and human understanding, offering tangible illustrations of spiritual principles. Whether drawing on pre- or post-Abrahamic contexts, these parables invite reflection and introspection, encouraging the reader to engage with the text beyond the literal level and to extract deeper, more profound meanings.

By utilising such parables, the Qurʾān acknowledges the complex fabric of human experience, drawing from historical and contemporary events to communicate divine truths. This dynamic interaction between text and reader, mediated through parables, enhances the Qurʾān’s accessibility and enduring relevance, fostering a personal, individualised engagement with the text as varied as its audience.

Parables also serve the dual purpose of conveying profound insights and encouraging the audience to engage actively with the text. The Qurʾān beckons its readers to probe, reflect, and seek understanding beyond the superficial layer. Qurʾānic parables invite the readers to exercise their cognitive faculties to discern the wisdom they encapsulate. As echoed in Qurʾānic exhortation, this dynamic fosters a deeper, more personal, and ultimately transformative interaction with the text (Mir 1986). Parables, therefore, represent a powerful tool in the Qurʾān’s pedagogical approach, as they can foster understanding across diverse audiences. For instance, the parable of the spider’s house in the Qurʾān,

مَثَلُ ٱلَّذِينَ ٱتَّخَذُوا۟ مِن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ أَوْلِيَآءَ كَمَثَلِ ٱلْعَنكَبُوتِ ٱتَّخَذَتْ بَيْتًۭا ۖ وَإِنَّ أَوْهَنَ ٱلْبُيُوتِ لَبَيْتُ ٱلْعَنكَبُوتِ ۖ لَوْ كَانُوا۟ يَعْلَمُونَ ٤١

“Those who take protectors other than God can be compared to spiders building themselves houses- the spider’s is the frailest of all houses- if only they could understand” (Q. 29:41).

This parable illustrates the frailty of associating partners with God (shirk) in a readily graspable way across cultures and generations. Similarly, the Qurʾān’s use of parables enables it to impart moral teachings. One example is the parable of the life of this world as water sent down from the sky, turning the Earth green before becoming stubble scattered by the wind (Q. 18:45). This parable underscores the transitory nature of worldly life, highlighting the importance of focusing on eternal life in the Hereafter.

The Qurʾān’s parables offer a plethora of moral and ethical teachings, encapsulating wisdom across multiple spheres of human existence. These teachings serve as guidelines for personal conduct and inform broader social interactions and societal norms. This section seeks to delve deeper into these moral and ethical teachings gleaned from Qurʾānic parables. Arguably, the most significant moral principle permeating the Qurʾān’s parables is Tawḥīd. A poignant demonstration of this principle is evident in the parable of the good word,

وَمَثَلُ كَلِمَةٍ خَبِيثَةٍۢ كَشَجَرَةٍ خَبِيثَةٍ ٱجْتُثَّتْ مِن فَوْقِ ٱلْأَرْضِ مَا لَهَا مِن قَرَارٍۢ ٢٦

This parable likens a good word to a good tree, firmly rooted and reaching into the sky, yielding its fruit every season by its Lord’s leave. The good word here is generally understood to signify divine oneness, illuminating the implications of spiritual steadfastness and moral integrity derived from monotheism (Haleem 2005, 194).

Unseen Descriptions and Historical Rectifications in the Qurʾān

The Qurʾān is replete with descriptions of the unseen or “ghayb”, a domain beyond human comprehension and sensory perception, yet central to theology. This unseen realm encompasses a multitude of themes: the divine attributes of God, the afterlife (heaven and Hell), the spiritual world (including angels and Jinn), and predestination (Qadr). These depictions facilitate believers’ understanding of life’s metaphysical dimensions, reinforcing the necessity for faith (‘Imān) and righteousness (‘Amal Sālih).

God’s nature, as the unseen divine being, is presented through a series of ‘beautiful names’ (Asmā’ al-Ḥusna) that denote His attributes (Q. 7:180). God is depicted as the All-Knowing (‘Alīm), All-Seeing (Baṣīr), and Ever-Living (Ḥayy), among others (Haleem 2005, 112). These characterisations convey an omnipresent, omniscient and omnipotent deity, shaping the believers’ conception of God and their relationship with Him.

Moreover, the Qurʾān portrays the spiritual world’s unseen entities, angels and Jinn. Angels are depicted as God’s obedient servants, performing various tasks, such as delivering revelations to prophets (Q. 2:97), recording human deeds (Q. 82:10-12), and taking souls at death (Q. 32:11). Jinn, on the other hand, are another unseen creation with free will, similar to humans, and can be good or evil (Q. 72:11).

The Qurʾān provides vivid descriptions of life after death, detailing the rewards and punishments in the Hereafter. The depictions of Paradise (Jannah) include gardens beneath which rivers flow (Q. 2:25), fruits and meats of desire (Q. 56:20-21), and pure companions (Q. 44:54). In contrast, Hell (Jahannam) is depicted with intense heat (Q. 9:81), boiling water (Q. 14:16), and a choking food of bitter thorn-fruit (Q. 88:6-7) (Haleem 2005, 8, 528, 414, 94, 175, 632). These descriptions serve as moral motivators, encouraging righteousness and deterring wrongdoing.

Predestination, or divine decree (Qadr), is another unseen concept in the Qurʾān. It teaches that all events, good or bad, occur according to God’s will (Q. 9:51). This belief instils in Muslims a sense of contentment and patience during trials and tribulations, acknowledging the ultimate wisdom of God’s plan (Haleem 2005, 167).

Essentially, the Qurʾānic portrayals of the unseen seek to nurture faith by illustrating elements beyond the physical world’s confines. These descriptions offer a nuanced understanding of the divine, the spiritual, the eschatological, and the predestined, inviting believers to reflect deeper on life, morality, and their relationship with God.

One of the ways the Qurʾān rectifies historical narratives is by reframing stories of past prophets and communities. Many of these accounts, found in the Jewish and Christian scriptures, are retold with different emphases, often to highlight moral or theological lessons (Q. 4:163; Q. 6:83-90). For example, the Qurʾānic account of Prophet Moses diverges significantly from the Biblical narrative. While the Bible describes Moses’ impatience (Exodus 32:19), the Qurʾān often portrays him as a model of patience (Q. 28:14-28; Haleem 2005, 62-66). This reframing serves to highlight virtues valued in the moral code.

In addition, the Qurʾān rectifies historical narratives by challenging prevalent societal customs and beliefs of the time. Pre- Arabian society (Jahiliyya) is criticised for its moral and social failings, such as female infanticide (Q. 16:58-59), idol worship (Q. 6:74), and unregulated polygamy (Q. 4:3). By introducing new regulations and moral codes, the Qurʾān aimed to reform these societal norms (Haleem 2005, 219-221, 74, 68).

Furthermore, the Qurʾān corrects distortions and interpolations (Tahrif) that had crept into earlier scriptures (Q. 2:79; Q. 5:13-15). It asserts that some People of the Book altered the words from their proper places and forgot a good part of the message (Q. 5:13-15). By presenting itself as a guard over previous revelations (Q. 5:48), the Qurʾān seeks to restore the original divine message it believes was lost or distorted in earlier texts (Haleem 2005, 21, 86-88).

The Qurʾān also uniquely retells history by emphasising events’ spiritual and moral aspects over mere factual reporting. The Battle of Badr, for instance, is depicted less as a military encounter and more as a testament to divine aid and the importance of unity and trust in God (Q. 8:9-19; Haleem 2005, 144-147).

The Qurʾān’s Address to ‘People of the Book’

The Qurʾān’s interaction with the “People of the Book” (Ahl al-Kitāb) constitutes a vital aspect of its broader discourse. This term refers to the Jews and Christians who had received scriptures before the revelation of the Qurʾān (Q. 3:64). The Qurʾān employs a variety of rhetorical strategies to address them, engaging them in dialogue, challenging their theological positions, inviting them to Islam, and at times admonishing them for their deviations (Q. 4:46; Q. 5:15).

This engagement with the “People of the Book” is evident in several Qurʾānic themes. Firstly, the Qurʾān acknowledges the previous revelations and their recipients. It recognises the Torah and the Gospel as revelations from God and views Jewish prophets and Jesus as integral parts of the prophetic tradition (Q. 5:44-46; Haleem 2005, 84-85). By doing so, the Qurʾān situates itself within the broader Abrahamic tradition, establishing a continuity of monotheistic faith (Q. 2:136).

Secondly, the Qurʾān critically engages with their beliefs. It questions the Jewish rejection of Jesus and Christian doctrines such as the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus (Q. 4:171; Q. 5:72- 73). This critique, however, should not be mistaken as an outright dismissal. It should be seen as a dialogic engagement seeking to correct what the Qurʾān views as theological deviations (Haleem 2005, 76-78).

The Qurʾān further challenges the “People of the Book” by highlighting their failure to uphold their religious commandments. It critiques them for distorting their scriptures and for their selective adherence to their religious laws (Q. 2:79; Q. 5:13). It also reproaches them for their exclusivist claims to salvation and God’s grace (Q. 2:111-112) (Haleem 2005, 19-20, 90- 92). Despite these critiques, the Qurʾān maintains a conciliatory stance towards the People of the Book. It extends an invitation to them to join the Muslim community, inviting them to “a common word”,

قُلْ يَـٰٓأَهْلَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ تَعَالَوْا۟ إِلَىٰ كَلِمَةٍۢ سَوَآءٍۭ بَيْنَنَا وَبَيْنَكُمْ أَلَّا نَعْبُدَ إِلَّا ٱللَّهَ وَلَا نُشْرِكَ بِهِۦ شَيْـًۭٔا وَلَا يَتَّخِذَ بَعْضُنَا بَعْضًا أَرْبَابًۭا مِّن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ ۚ فَإِن تَوَلَّوْا۟ فَقُولُوا۟ ٱشْهَدُوا۟ بِأَنَّا مُسْلِمُونَ ٦٤

“Say, ‘People of the Book, let us arrive at a statement that is common to us all: we worship God alone, we ascribe no partner to Him, and none of us takes others beside God as lords.’ If they turn away, say, ‘Witness our devotion to Him’” (Q. 3:64)

The Qurʾān’s critique of the “People of the Book” could be seen as an internal critique within the Abrahamic tradition rather than an external critique of a different religion. The Qurʾān presents itself as the custodian of the monotheistic tradition, seeking to restore it to its original purity from the perceived distortions and deviations (Haleem 2005, 76-78). This sense of restorative justice underpins the Qurʾān’s critique and dialogue with the People of the Book.

Interestingly, the Qurʾān recognises the “People of the Book” as the legitimate recipients of God’s revelations. This recognition transcends mere tolerance; it signifies respect for their religious identity and a validation of their spiritual experiences. This Qurʾānic stance has necessary implications for interfaith relations, advocating a model of engagement based on mutual recognition and respect (Haleem 2005, 646-647).

Qurʾānic verse 4:46, which falls within the context of a broader critique of the Children of Israel, presents an intriguing and complex moment within the Qurʾānic discourse. The verse is remarkable in its directness and representation of an accusatory stance against a specific group of the “People of the Book.”

“Some Jews distort the meaning of [revealed] words: they say, ‘We hear and disobey,’ and ‘Listen,’ [adding the insult] ‘May you not hear,’ and ‘Ra’ina [Look at us],’ twisting it abusively with their tongues so as to disparage the Law. If they had said, ‘We hear and obey,’ ‘Listen,’ and ‘Unzurna [Look at us],’ that would have been better and more proper for them. But God has spurned them for their defiance; they believe very little” (Q. 4:46).

A careful analysis of the verse highlights its sophisticated linguistic and thematic complexity. Firstly, the verse serves as a direct commentary on the supposed disobedience and distortion of the revealed words by a specific Jewish community group. However, it is crucial to note that the Qurʾān, in this verse, does not accuse the entire Jewish community but only a specific group purported to have twisted the meanings of God’s words.

‘We hear and disobey’ represent the exact antithesis of a fundamental tenet ‘we hear, and we obey’ (Haleem 2005, 89). This phrase signifies submission to God’s commands and is a crucial aspect of the faith. The alleged distortion and reversal of this phrase by the group mentioned in the verse signify a blatant disregard for divine instructions, which the Qurʾān strongly criticises.

The Qurʾān then outlines an appropriate response that would have been ‘better and more proper’ for the accused group. The suggested phrases contain words similar to ‘Ra’ina,’ which means ‘Look at us.’ However, they do not carry the double entendre that could be misused to disparage the divine Law.

Finally, the verse concludes with a harsh denouncement, indicating that God has rejected them for their disobedience, implying their spiritual downfall. It thus communicates a stern warning about the grave consequences of distorting divine words, reinforcing the centrality of compliance and sincerity in engaging with divine revelation.

Qurʾānic verse 5:15 represents a moment of significant revelation and a call to enlightenment, drawing the attention of the ‘People of the Book’ towards the Qurʾān’s guidance.

“People of the Book, Our Messenger has come to make clear to you much of what you have kept hidden of the Scripture, and to overlook much [you have done]. A light has now come to you from God, and a Scripture making things clear, with which God guides to the ways of Peace those who follow what pleases Him, bringing them from darkness out into light, by His will, and guiding them to a straight path” (Q. 5:15).

This verse begins with a direct address to the ‘People of the Book,’ encompassing Jews and Christians, setting the stage for a significant theological discourse. The verse identifies Muḥammad as a Messenger, affirming the continuity of the Abrahamic prophetic tradition. However, the Messenger’s role is twofold: he is both a revealer of concealed truths and an overlooker of past transgressions, by which the Jewish community can return to the Abrahamic path by accepting and following the Qurʾān. The balance between these roles encapsulates a theme of divine mercy and justice, fundamental to Qurʾānic theology.

The ‘light’ and ‘Scripture’ mentioned in the verse can be interpreted as the Qurʾān itself (Haleem, 2005, 119). This alludes to the Qurʾān as a beacon of guidance, illuminating the path towards Peace. Notably, this guidance is not only theoretical but transformative. The verse vividly describes the Qurʾān’s impact: it brings its followers ‘from darkness out into light’. This metaphor symbolises an ideological transition from ignorance (jahiliyya) to knowledge (‘ilm), reflecting the Qurʾān’s ambition to educate and enlighten its audience.

The verse further elaborates on the direction of this guidance: it is towards a straight path.’ This notion of the ‘straight path’ (Ṣirāṭ al-mustaqīm) recurs throughout the Qurʾān, representing the ideal way of life aligned with God’s will. By identifying the Qurʾān as a guide to this path, the verse highlights its centrality in defining and shaping moral and ethical norms in tradition.

Finally, the verse situates this entire transformative process within God’s will. This attribute underscores the omnipotence and sovereignty of God, positioning the Qurʾānic revelation within the broader divine plan.

Verse 6:106 of the Qurʾān,

“Follow what has been revealed to you from your Lord, there is no God but Him. Turn away from those who join other gods with Him”. (Q. 6:106).

At its core, this verse succinctly encapsulates the fundamental tenets of the faith. It is a call to monotheism, obedience to divine revelation, and rejection of polytheism, themes that are fundamental to the Qurʾānic message.

The verse begins with an exhortation to follow the revelations received from God. This directive can be seen as a command to Muḥammad and, by extension, the broader Muslim community. The term ‘revealed’ evokes the Qurʾān’s status as divine revelation, underlining its authority as a spiritual and ethical guidance source. It reaffirms that the Qurʾān is not a product of human authorship but God’s Scripture directly bestowed upon Muḥammad (Haleem, 2005, 141).

The verse then advances to a clear articulation of monotheism, often considered the cornerstone of belief: “There is no God but Him”. This statement declares God’s oneness, an uncompromising affirmation of monotheism that distinguishes Islam from polytheistic religions. It categorically rejects the existence of any deity other than God and solidifies the central position of monotheism (Haleem, 2005, 141).

The final directive of the verse is to ‘turn away’ from those who associate other deities with God. The phrase ‘join other gods with Him’ references the act of shirk, or polytheism, viewed as the most grievous sin. It marks a clear boundary between the followers of Islam and those of other faiths (Haleem, 2005, 141).

This verse can be viewed as a concise summary of the path, marked by obedience to divine revelation, affirmation of monotheism, and steadfast rejection of polytheism. As such, it serves as a guiding principle, illuminating the path that Muslims are to tread. Moreover, it positions the Qurʾān as a beacon of guidance, offering clear directions for its followers and cementing its status as a source of divinely ordained knowledge and wisdom.

In conclusion, verse 6:106 of the Qurʾān serves as a strong statement of the fundamental principles of Islam, encapsulating the essence of its message within a single poem. It highlights the centrality of the Qurʾān as divine revelation, reaffirms the bedrock of monotheism upon which the faith is built, and underscores the uncompromising stance against polytheism.

The Qurʾān has a unique relationship with Ahl al-Kitāb. As used in the Qurʾān, this term primarily refers to Jews and Christians who have received earlier revelations from God in the form of the Torah and the Gospel, respectively. The Qurʾān encourages the Ahl al-Kitāb to accept and follow its teachings, positioning itself as God’s final and most complete revelation. A crucial verse in this regard is Q. 5:68,

قُلْ يَـٰٓأَهْلَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ لَسْتُمْ عَلَىٰ شَىْءٍ حَتَّىٰ تُقِيمُوا۟ ٱلتَّوْرَىٰةَ وَٱلْإِنجِيلَ وَمَآ أُنزِلَ إِلَيْكُم مِّن رَّبِّكُمْ ۗ وَلَيَزِيدَنَّ كَثِيرًۭا مِّنْهُم مَّآ أُنزِلَ إِلَيْكَ مِن رَّبِّكَ طُغْيَـٰنًۭا وَكُفْرًۭا ۖ فَلَا تَأْسَ عَلَى ٱلْقَوْمِ ٱلْكَـٰفِرِينَ ٦٨

“Say, ‘People of the Book, you have no true basis [for your religion] unless you uphold the Torah, the Gospel, and that which has been sent down to you from your Lord,’ but what has been sent down to you [Prophet] from your Lord is sure to increase many of them in their insolence and defiance: do not worry about those who defy [God].” (Q. 5:68).

This verse emphasises the significance of upholding God’s revelations, including the Qurʾān, as an essential aspect of true faith. The Qurʾān’s assertion of its authority and legitimacy within the broader Abrahamic tradition is based on its self-perception as the conclusive divine revelation. Q. 5:3 states,

حُرِّمَتْ عَلَيْكُمُ ٱلْمَيْتَةُ وَٱلدَّمُ وَلَحْمُ ٱلْخِنزِيرِ وَمَآ أُهِلَّ لِغَيْرِ ٱللَّهِ بِهِۦ وَٱلْمُنْخَنِقَةُ وَٱلْمَوْقُوذَةُ وَٱلْمُتَرَدِّيَةُ وَٱلنَّطِيحَةُ وَمَآ أَكَلَ ٱلسَّبُعُ إِلَّا مَا ذَكَّيْتُمْ وَمَا ذُبِحَ عَلَى ٱلنُّصُبِ وَأَن تَسْتَقْسِمُوا۟ بِٱلْأَزْلَـٰمِ ۚ ذَٰلِكُمْ فِسْقٌ ۗ ٱلْيَوْمَ يَئِسَ ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ مِن دِينِكُمْ فَلَا تَخْشَوْهُمْ وَٱخْشَوْنِ ۚ ٱلْيَوْمَ أَكْمَلْتُ لَكُمْ دِينَكُمْ وَأَتْمَمْتُ عَلَيْكُمْ نِعْمَتِى وَرَضِيتُ لَكُمُ ٱلْإِسْلَـٰمَ دِينًۭا ۚ فَمَنِ ٱضْطُرَّ فِى مَخْمَصَةٍ غَيْرَ مُتَجَانِفٍۢ لِّإِثْمٍۢ ۙ فَإِنَّ ٱللَّهَ غَفُورٌۭ رَّحِيمٌۭ ٣

“You are forbidden to eat carrion; blood; pig’s meat; any animal over which any name other than God’s has been invoked; any animal strangled, or victim of a violent blow or a fall, or gored or savaged by a beast of prey, unless you still slaughter it [in the correct manner]; or anything sacrificed on idolatrous altars. You are also forbidden to allot shares [of meat] by drawing marked arrows -a heinous practice- today, the disbelievers have lost all hope that you will give up your religion. Do not fear them: fear Me. Today I have perfected your religion for you, completed My blessing upon you, and chosen as your religion Islam: [total devotion to God]; but if any of you is forced by hunger to eat forbidden food, with no intention of doing wrong, then God is most forgiving and merciful” (Q. 5:3).

The following verses address the children of Israel, encourage them to follow their books, and chastise them for not accepting the new revelation and messenger. Here following their books is intended to mean accepting God’s will and revelation by accepting the new revelation:

وَءَامِنُوا۟ بِمَآ أَنزَلْتُ مُصَدِّقًۭا لِّمَا مَعَكُمْ وَلَا تَكُونُوٓا۟ أَوَّلَ كَافِرٍۭ بِهِۦ ۖ وَلَا تَشْتَرُوا۟ بِـَٔايَـٰتِى ثَمَنًۭا قَلِيلًۭا وَإِيَّـٰىَ فَٱتَّقُونِ ٤١

“Believe in the message I have sent down confirming what you already possess. Do not be the first to disbelieve in it, and do not sell My messages for a small price: I am the One of whom you should be mindful” (Q. 2:41).

وَإِذْ قُلْتُمْ يَـٰمُوسَىٰ لَن نَّصْبِرَ عَلَىٰ طَعَامٍۢ وَٰحِدٍۢ فَٱدْعُ لَنَا رَبَّكَ يُخْرِجْ لَنَا مِمَّا تُنۢبِتُ ٱلْأَرْضُ مِنۢ بَقْلِهَا وَقِثَّآئِهَا وَفُومِهَا وَعَدَسِهَا وَبَصَلِهَا ۖ قَالَ أَتَسْتَبْدِلُونَ ٱلَّذِى هُوَ أَدْنَىٰ بِٱلَّذِى هُوَ خَيْرٌ ۚ ٱهْبِطُوا۟ مِصْرًۭا فَإِنَّ لَكُم مَّا سَأَلْتُمْ ۗ وَضُرِبَتْ عَلَيْهِمُ ٱلذِّلَّةُ وَٱلْمَسْكَنَةُ وَبَآءُو بِغَضَبٍۢ مِّنَ ٱللَّهِ ۗ ذَٰلِكَ بِأَنَّهُمْ كَانُوا۟ يَكْفُرُونَ بِـَٔايَـٰتِ ٱللَّهِ وَيَقْتُلُونَ ٱلنَّبِيِّـۧنَ بِغَيْرِ ٱلْحَقِّ ۗ ذَٰلِكَ بِمَا عَصَوا۟ وَّكَانُوا۟ يَعْتَدُونَ ٦١

“Remember when you said, ‘Moses, we cannot bear to eat only one kind of food, so pray to your Lord to bring out for us some of the earth’s produce, its herbs and cucumbers, its garlic, lentils, and onions.’ He said, ‘Would you exchange better for worse? Go to Egypt, and there you will find what you have asked for.’ They were struck with humiliation and wretchedness, and they incurred the wrath of God because they persistently rejected His messages and killed prophets contrary to all that is right. All this was because they disobeyed and were lawbreakers” (Q. 2:61).

وَلَمَّا جَآءَهُمْ كِتَـٰبٌۭ مِّنْ عِندِ ٱللَّهِ مُصَدِّقٌۭ لِّمَا مَعَهُمْ وَكَانُوا۟ مِن قَبْلُ يَسْتَفْتِحُونَ عَلَى ٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا۟ فَلَمَّا جَآءَهُم مَّا عَرَفُوا۟ كَفَرُوا۟ بِهِۦ ۚ فَلَعْنَةُ ٱللَّهِ عَلَى ٱلْكَـٰفِرِينَ ٨٩

“When a Scripture came to them from God confirming what they already had, and when they had been praying for victory against the disbelievers, even when there came to them something they knew [to be true], they disbelieved in it: God rejects those who disbelieve” (Q. 2:89).

وَإِذَا قِيلَ لَهُمْ ءَامِنُوا۟ بِمَآ أَنزَلَ ٱللَّهُ قَالُوا۟ نُؤْمِنُ بِمَآ أُنزِلَ عَلَيْنَا وَيَكْفُرُونَ بِمَا وَرَآءَهُۥ وَهُوَ ٱلْحَقُّ مُصَدِّقًۭا لِّمَا مَعَهُمْ ۗ قُلْ فَلِمَ تَقْتُلُونَ أَنۢبِيَآءَ ٱللَّهِ مِن قَبْلُ إِن كُنتُم مُّؤْمِنِينَ ٩١

“When it is said to them, ‘Believe in God’s revelations,’ they reply, ‘We believe in what was revealed to us,’ but they do not believe in what came afterwards, though it is the truth confirming what they already have. Say [Muḥammad], ‘Why did you kill God’s prophets in the past if you were true believers?” (Q. 2:91).

وَقَالُوا۟ لَن يَدْخُلَ ٱلْجَنَّةَ إِلَّا مَن كَانَ هُودًا أَوْ نَصَـٰرَىٰ ۗ تِلْكَ أَمَانِيُّهُمْ ۗ قُلْ هَاتُوا۟ بُرْهَـٰنَكُمْ إِن كُنتُمْ صَـٰدِقِينَ ١١١

“They also say, ‘No one will enter Paradise unless he is a Jew or a Christian.’ This is their own wishful thinking. [Prophet], say, ‘Produce your evidence, if you are telling the truth’” (Q. 2:111).

يَـٰٓأَهْلَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ لِمَ تَكْفُرُونَ بِـَٔايَـٰتِ ٱللَّهِ وَأَنتُمْ تَشْهَدُونَ ٧٠

“People of the Book, why do you deny God’s revelations when you can see they are true?” (Q. 3:70).

وَإِذْ أَخَذَ ٱللَّهُ مِيثَـٰقَ ٱلنَّبِيِّـۧنَ لَمَآ ءَاتَيْتُكُم مِّن كِتَـٰبٍۢ وَحِكْمَةٍۢ ثُمَّ جَآءَكُمْ رَسُولٌۭ مُّصَدِّقٌۭ لِّمَا مَعَكُمْ لَتُؤْمِنُنَّ بِهِۦ وَلَتَنصُرُنَّهُۥ ۚ قَالَ ءَأَقْرَرْتُمْ وَأَخَذْتُمْ عَلَىٰ ذَٰلِكُمْ إِصْرِى ۖ قَالُوٓا۟ أَقْرَرْنَا ۚ قَالَ فَٱشْهَدُوا۟ وَأَنَا۠ مَعَكُم مِّنَ ٱلشَّـٰهِدِينَ ٨١

“God took a pledge from the prophets, saying, ‘If, after I have bestowed Scripture and wisdom upon you, a messenger comes confirming what you have been given, you must believe in him and support him. Do you affirm this and accept My pledge as binding on you?’ They said, ‘We do.’ He said, ‘Then bear witness, and I too will bear witness’” (Q. 3:81).

وَلَوْ كَانُوا۟ يُؤْمِنُونَ بِٱللَّهِ وَٱلنَّبِىِّ وَمَآ أُنزِلَ إِلَيْهِ مَا ٱتَّخَذُوهُمْ أَوْلِيَآءَ وَلَـٰكِنَّ كَثِيرًۭا مِّنْهُمْ فَـٰسِقُونَ ٨١

“If they had believed in God, in the Prophet, and in what was sent down to him, they would never have allied themselves with the disbelievers, but most of them are rebels” (Q. 5:81).

The given verses provide explicit guidance from the Qurʾān, reprimanding Christians and Jews for their non-acceptance of the new prophecy and the emergent Prophet. This context pertains to Jews and Christians who will achieve heavenly rewards by adhering to their holy books and embracing fresh revelation. The Qurʾān strongly emphasises this concept, asserting that Prophet Muḥammad is not inaugurating a new faith. Still, he is the standardbearer of the divine faith, continuing the spiritual legacy of preceding prophets

وَمَن يَرْغَبُ عَن مِّلَّةِ إِبْرَٰهِـۧمَ إِلَّا مَن سَفِهَ نَفْسَهُۥ ۚ وَلَقَدِ ٱصْطَفَيْنَـٰهُ فِى ٱلدُّنْيَا ۖ وَإِنَّهُۥ فِى ٱلْـَٔاخِرَةِ لَمِنَ ٱلصَّـٰلِحِينَ ١٣٠

“Who but a fool would forsake the religion of Abraham? We have chosen him in this world, and he will rank among the righteous in the Hereafter” (Q. 2:130).

“They say, ‘Become Jews or Christians, and you will be rightly guided.’ Say [Prophet], ‘No, [ours is] the religion of Abraham, the upright, who did not worship any god besides God’” (Q. 2:135).

قُلْ أَتُحَآجُّونَنَا فِى ٱللَّهِ وَهُوَ رَبُّنَا وَرَبُّكُمْ وَلَنَآ أَعْمَـٰلُنَا وَلَكُمْ أَعْمَـٰلُكُمْ وَنَحْنُ لَهُۥ مُخْلِصُونَ ١٣٩

“Say [Prophet] [to the Jews and Christians], ‘How can you argue with us about God when He is our Lord and your Lord? Our deeds belong to us, and yours to you. We devote ourselves entirely to Him” (Q. 2:139).

تِلْكَ ءَايَـٰتُ ٱللَّهِ نَتْلُوهَا عَلَيْكَ بِٱلْحَقِّ ۚ وَإِنَّكَ لَمِنَ ٱلْمُرْسَلِينَ ٢٥٢

“These are the revelations of God which We recite to you [Muḥammad] with the truth, and you truly are one of the messengers” (Q. 2:252).

وَمَن يَبْتَغِ غَيْرَ ٱلْإِسْلَـٰمِ دِينًۭا فَلَن يُقْبَلَ مِنْهُ وَهُوَ فِى ٱلْـَٔاخِرَةِ مِنَ ٱلْخَـٰسِرِينَ ٨٥

“If anyone seeks a religion other than [Islam] complete devotion to God, it will not be accepted from him: he will be one of the losers in the Hereafter” (Q. 3:85).

وَإِنَّ مِنْ أَهْلِ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ لَمَن يُؤْمِنُ بِٱللَّهِ وَمَآ أُنزِلَ إِلَيْكُمْ وَمَآ أُنزِلَ إِلَيْهِمْ خَـٰشِعِينَ لِلَّهِ لَا يَشْتَرُونَ بِـَٔايَـٰتِ ٱللَّهِ ثَمَنًۭا قَلِيلًا ۗ أُو۟لَـٰٓئِكَ لَهُمْ أَجْرُهُمْ عِندَ رَبِّهِمْ ۗ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ سَرِيعُ ٱلْحِسَابِ ١٩٩

“Some of the People of the Book believe in God, in what has been sent down to you and in what was sent down to them: humbling themselves before God, they would never sell God’s revelation for a small price. These people will have their rewards with their Lord: God is swift in reckoning” (Q. 3:199).

In this verse, God makes clear that it is those from the people of the Book who affirm their scripture and devote themselves to God and thus accept the new revelation.

يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ أُوتُوا۟ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ ءَامِنُوا۟ بِمَا نَزَّلْنَا مُصَدِّقًۭا لِّمَا مَعَكُم مِّن قَبْلِ أَن نَّطْمِسَ وُجُوهًۭا فَنَرُدَّهَا عَلَىٰٓ أَدْبَارِهَآ أَوْ نَلْعَنَهُمْ كَمَا لَعَنَّآ أَصْحَـٰبَ ٱلسَّبْتِ ۚ وَكَانَ أَمْرُ ٱللَّهِ مَفْعُولًا ٤٧

“People of the Book, believe in what We have sent down to confirm what you already have before We wipe out [your sense of ] direction, turning you back, or reject you, as We rejected those who broke the Sabbath: God’s will is always done” (Q. 4:47).

يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓا۟ ءَامِنُوا۟ بِٱللَّهِ وَرَسُولِهِۦ وَٱلْكِتَـٰبِ ٱلَّذِى نَزَّلَ عَلَىٰ رَسُولِهِۦ وَٱلْكِتَـٰبِ ٱلَّذِىٓ أَنزَلَ مِن قَبْلُ ۚ وَمَن يَكْفُرْ بِٱللَّهِ وَمَلَـٰٓئِكَتِهِۦ وَكُتُبِهِۦ وَرُسُلِهِۦ وَٱلْيَوْمِ ٱلْـَٔاخِرِ فَقَدْ ضَلَّ ضَلَـٰلًۢا بَعِيدًا ١٣٦

You who believe, believe in God and His Messenger and in the Scripture He sent down to His Messenger, as well as what He sent down before. Anyone who does not believe in God, His angels, Scriptures, messengers, and the Last Day have gone far, far astray” (Q. 4:136).

قُلْ إِنَّنِى هَدَىٰنِى رَبِّىٓ إِلَىٰ صِرَٰطٍۢ مُّسْتَقِيمٍۢ دِينًۭا قِيَمًۭا مِّلَّةَ إِبْرَٰهِيمَ حَنِيفًۭا ۚ وَمَا كَانَ مِنَ ٱلْمُشْرِكِينَ ١٦١

“Say, ‘My Lord has guided me to a straight path, an upright religion, the faith of Abraham, a man of pure faith. He was not a polytheist’” (Q. 6:161).

The Qurʾān as a Guide and Reminder

An in-depth examination of the Qurʾānic verses Q. 5:41-50, Q. 15:9, Q. 5:48, and Q. 16:89 reveal crucial insights into the Qurʾānic understanding of its role and significance in the context of Abrahamic traditions the concept of divine protection and its relationship with the People of the Book.

Verse 5:48 then emphasises the Qurʾān’s unique position among these revelations: “To you, [Muḥammad], We have sent down the Scripture with the truth, confirming the Scriptures that came before it, and with final authority over them” (Haleem, 2005, 88). The Qurʾān is thus acknowledged as the final authority, confirming previous Scriptures while simultaneously providing a means to resolve their differences. However, the Qurʾān’s authority is not limited to resolving differences among previous Scriptures. Q. 5:48 further states,

“We sent to you [Muhammad] the Scripture with the truth, confirming the Scriptures that came before it, and with final authority over them: so judge between them according to what God has sent down. Do not follow their whims, which deviate from the truth that has come to you. We have assigned a law and a path to each of you. If God had so willed, He would have made you one community, but He wanted to test you through that which He has given you, so race to do good: you will all return to God and He will make clear to you the matters you differed about” (Q. 5:48).

This directive establishes the Qurʾān’s jurisdiction over moral, theological, and legal judgement. Q. 15:9 delivers a profound message on divine protection of the Qurʾān,

إِنَّا نَحْنُ نَزَّلْنَا ٱلذِّكْرَ وَإِنَّا لَهُۥ لَحَـٰفِظُونَ ٩

“It is We who sent down the Message, and We will certainly guard it” (Q. 15:9). This verse highlights the idea of divine guardianship and preserving the Qurʾān from corruption, further underpinning its status as God’s reliable and untampered word.

Finally, Q. 16:89 is notable in its reiteration of the Qurʾān’s function as clear evidence and guide,

وَيَوْمَ نَبْعَثُ فِى كُلِّ أُمَّةٍۢ شَهِيدًا عَلَيْهِم مِّنْ أَنفُسِهِمْ ۖ وَجِئْنَا بِكَ شَهِيدًا عَلَىٰ هَـٰٓؤُلَآءِ ۚ وَنَزَّلْنَا عَلَيْكَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ تِبْيَـٰنًۭا لِّكُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ وَهُدًۭى وَرَحْمَةًۭ وَبُشْرَىٰ لِلْمُسْلِمِينَ ٨٩

“One day, We shall raise from every community a witness against them from amongst themselves, and We shall bring you as a witness against these people. We have sent down the Book to you to make everything clear, a guide, mercy, and glad tidings for those who submit to God” (Q. 16:89).

This verse reinforces the Qurʾān’s purpose in providing clarity and guidance to humanity, furthering its role as a final testament in the Abrahamic tradition. Examining these verses elucidates the Qurʾān’s understanding of its role within the Abrahamic traditions, its relationship with the Ahl al-Kitāb, and its function as a divine guide. It underlines the Qurʾān’s affirmation of its authority and legitimacy, divine protection, and role as a guiding force for humanity. The Qurʾān has multiple functions, playing a significant role as a guide (huda), a reminder (dhikr), and a bringer of good news (Bashar). These aspects are emphasised throughout the Qurʾānic text, shaping the Muslim perception of the Qurʾān’s purpose and spiritual significance.

As a guide, the Qurʾān provides a navigational framework for individuals to lead a life in harmony with divine principles. For instance, in Al-Baqarah, the Qurʾān is referred to as a guidance for humanity,

“It was in the month of Ramadan that the Quran was revealed as guidance for mankind, clear messages giving guidance and distinguishing between right and wrong. So any one of you who is present that month should fast, and anyone who is ill or on a journey should make up for the lost days by fasting on other days later. God wants ease for you, not hardship. He wants you to complete the prescribed period and to glorify Him for having guided you, so that you may be thankful” (Q. 2185).

This passage portrays the Qurʾān as a universal guide that provides clear principles to distinguish right from wrong. Regarding its function as a reminder, the Qurʾān frequently prompts its readers to remember and reflect upon the divine messages it contains. The word dhikr appears throughout the Qurʾān, emphasising the significance of mindful engagement with its teachings. In Al-Anbiyaa,

وَهَـٰذَا ذِكْرٌۭ مُّبَارَكٌ أَنزَلْنَـٰهُ ۚ أَفَأَنتُمْ لَهُۥ مُنكِرُونَ ٥٠

“This [Quran] too is a blessed message We have sent down- are you [people] going to deny it?” (Q. 21:50).

Additionally, the Qurʾān brings good news, promising a divine reward for those who follow its guidance. This aspect is reflected in verses such as Yūnus,

أَثُمَّ إِذَا مَا وَقَعَ ءَامَنتُم بِهِۦٓ ۚ ءَآلْـَٔـٰنَ وَقَدْ كُنتُم بِهِۦ تَسْتَعْجِلُونَ ٥١

“People, a teaching from your Lord has come to you, a healing for what is in [your] hearts, and guidance and mercy for the believers” (Q. 10:57).

The Qurʾān here is not just a spiritual guide or reminder; it also brings its followers the glad tidings of spiritual fulfilment and divine mercy. However, these three roles of the Qurʾān should not be considered in isolation; they are interconnected and mutually reinforcing. The Qurʾān as a guide is essential for individuals to navigate their lives in line with divine principles. Its function as a reminder aids in keeping these principles alive in individuals’ minds and hearts, prompting continuous engagement and contemplation. Simultaneously, the Qurʾān, as a bringer of good news, encourages adherence to its teachings, offering spiritual and eternal rewards for the observant.

In this multifaceted role, the Qurʾān provides ethical and spiritual guidelines, hope, solace, and motivation for individuals to lead a virtuous life. Therefore, understanding the Qurʾān’s functions as a guide, a reminder, and a bringer of good news is crucial for appreciating its comprehensive role in the spiritual life of Muslims.

In summary, the Qurʾān serves as a spiritual, moral, and historical guide. The Qurʾān is revered as the direct Word of God and is the ultimate repository of divine knowledge and wisdom. Through this multifaceted examination, it becomes evident that the Qurʾān’s significance extends beyond its role as a religious text to encompass various aspects of societal, cultural, and individual life.

The Qurʾān’s role as the Furqān and Muṣḥaf, the distinction between right and wrong and the written form of the text, respectively, reflects its dual function as both a guide for moral conduct and an embodiment of the divine word. Moreover, its delivery to Prophet Muhammad in multiple readings, or Aḥruf, demonstrates the Qurʾān’s accommodating nature and ability to cater to the linguistic and cultural diversity among the early Muslim community.

The transcription of the Qurʾān by scribes and the subsequent codification under Caliph ‘Uthman also provides insights into the historical and socio-political contexts that shaped the Qurʾān’s formation. Preserving the Qurayshi dialect underscores the effort to maintain linguistic consistency and authenticity in the Qurʾānic text.

The Qurʾān’s portrayal of God’s relationships with His friends and enemies, the accounts of prophets, and the depiction of the unseen provide a comprehensive understanding of Islamic cosmology and soteriology. Moreover, the Qurʾān’s engagement with the Abrahamic tradition, rectification of historical narratives, and conversations with the People of the Book serve as pivotal points for interfaith dialogue and understanding.

In analysing specific Qurʾānic verses, the Qurʾān’s role as a guide, reminder, and bringer of good news is emphasised, underscoring its central position in individual spirituality and communal ethics within Islam.

The Qurʾān’s extensive use of parables pre- and post-Abraham, its moral and ethical teachings derived from these parables, and its explicit guidance for Ahl al-Kitāb all consolidate its position as a source of moral and spiritual enlightenment.

In conclusion, the Qurʾān, in its various roles and representations, is an anchor shaping our worldview and spiritual identities. It offers a divine blueprint for ethical and moral conduct, provides spiritual consolation, and stimulates intellectual engagement and contemplation. As the divine word, the Qurʾān is an enduring testament to the rich tapestry of Islamic thought and spirituality, transcending time and space.

Summary

The Qurʾān, revered as God’s ultimate communication to humanity, is a sacred text of unparalleled significance. Revealed over a span of approximately 23 years in the 7th century CE, it captures the essence of a divine dialogue that transcends time, affirming the teachings of preceding scriptures while rectifying any deviations or distortions that may have crept in over time. Written in the exquisite Quraishi dialect, the Qurʾān is a literary phenomenon, showcasing the richness and grandeur of the Arabic language in its full glory.

“Indeed, this Qur’an guides to that which is most suitable…” (Qurʾān 17:9) With these words, the Qurʾān asserts itself not only as a masterpiece of literary excellence but also as a divine beacon of wisdom, enveloped in self-awareness and safeguarded by divine protection. It invites humanity to delve deep into its verses, reflect on its profound messages, and heed its guidance. The Qurʾān warns of neglecting its teachings, reminding believers of the scriptures granted to previous communities and affirming that those endowed with scripture, wisdom, and prophethood would never turn away from its core message, dedicating their worship solely to God.

Far beyond a religious scripture, the Qurʾān stands as a monumental pillar of Arabic literature and a guide for humanity, echoing its profound messages across the vast deserts of Arabia. It encompasses historical narratives, scientific marvels, moral guidelines, and societal blueprints, serving as a beacon of knowledge and guidance for every aspect of life. As the Furqān, the criterion distinguishes truth from falsehood, guiding believers on the path of righteousness.

The divine strategy behind the Qurʾān’s revelation and preservation is miraculous. To accommodate the linguistic diversity of Arab tribes, it was revealed in multiple wordings, or Aḥruf, ensuring that its message reached every heart and soul, transcending tribal affiliations. Despite the variations in wording, the integrity of the Qurʾān’s message remained steadfast across the Aḥruf, preserved through the meticulous efforts of the Prophet’s dedicated scribes.

These scribes, known as the Kuttab, were pivotal in ensuring the Qurʾān’s preservation, transcribing the divine revelations with unwavering fidelity. Their sacred task saw the Qurʾān immortalised on diverse materials, from parchment and leather to palm stalks and camel bones. These tangible artefacts served as touchstones for future generations to access and immerse themselves in the divine message.

With the reign of Abu Bakr came the unification of these sacred words into a single volume, a monumental task spearheaded by Zaid ibn Thabit. This effort ensured the Qurʾān’s preservation as a unified entity, further solidified during ʿUthmān’s reign with the establishment of the ʿUthmānic codex. This standardised text was disseminated throughout the empire, ensuring a consistent and unified Qurʾānic voice.

Yet, the completion of the Qurʾān marks not the end of divine guidance but the culmination of a comprehensive life blueprint. It builds upon previous scriptures, offering a holistic framework for human conduct, addressing uncertainties, rectifying misinterpretations, and expanding upon the laws of the Abrahamic tradition. With a clear message of monotheism, it purifies core beliefs and eradicates polytheistic distortions, extending its universal call to every soul and corner of humanity.

The Qurʾān intertwines the stories of prophets and their trials, creating a rich thematic tapestry. Drawing from the Abrahamic tradition, it offers fresh perspectives, and challenges established notions, serving as a moral compass guiding believers towards virtue, faith, and understanding. It validates the divine missions of prophets like Moses and Jesus, emphasising the universal lessons embedded in their stories, and introduces lesser-known prophets such as Ṣāliḥ and Hūd.

At the narrative’s core stands Abraham, or Ibrāhīm, a paragon of unwavering faith and monotheistic devotion, bridging the gap between Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Qurʾān accentuates the importance of monotheism, the struggle against polytheism, and the interconnectedness of the Abrahamic faiths, affirming the divine revelations bestowed upon previous generations.

The Qurʾān is a profound and encompassing text, serving as a guide, a source of divine wisdom, and a custodian of sacred revelations. It touches upon many topics, from moral injunctions to historical events, offering timeless wisdom and guidance for believers. Transcending linguistic and tribal boundaries, it speaks to every soul, imparting a universal message. The Qurʾān’s completion signifies not an end but the provision of a comprehensive guide for life, weaving together the stories of prophets to paint a vivid portrait of faith, resilience, and moral integrity. Above all, it is a testament to God’s unwavering love and guidance for humanity.