No need for any other Auliya
The term ʾawliyāʾ (plural of walī) evokes an array of nuanced interpretations, reflecting diverse social, theological and mystic elements; derived from the Arabic root w-l-y, denoting closeness or friendship, ʾawliyāʾ broadly refers to the ‘friends of Allāh’, individuals who have attained a special status due to their perceived proximity to the divine. Yet, the definition is deceptively simple for a richly nuanced term. Rooted in the Arabic language, ‘walī’ embodies a myriad of meanings, including ‘custodian’, ‘protector’, ‘helper’, and ‘friend’. However, the term frequently denotes an Islamic saint, otherwise referred to by the more literal ‘friend of God’. The Qurʾān offers profound insights into the concept of ʾawliyāʾ, providing the foundational framework for understanding this term. Several verses explicitly use the term ʾAwliyāʾ, elaborating on its various connotations and shaping how the concept has been interpreted over the centuries.
أَلَآ إِنَّ أَوْلِيَآءَ ٱللَّهِ لَا خَوْفٌ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا هُمْ يَحْزَنُونَ ٦٢
ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ وَكَانُوا۟ يَتَّقُونَ ٦٣
“But for those who are on God’s side (ʾAwliyāʾ Allāh), there is no fear, nor shall they grieve. For those who believe and are conscious of God”.1
This verse underpins the fundamental association of ʾAwliyāʾ with belief and piety and their consequent security from fear and grief. These attributes reflect the intimate relationship between the ʾAwliyāʾ and the divine, expressed through their elevated spiritual status. The Qurʾān provided the initial religious context for the concept of ʾawliyāʾ. The following verse,
لَهُمُ ٱلْبُشْرَىٰ فِى ٱلْحَيَوٰةِ ٱلدُّنْيَا وَفِى ٱلْـَٔاخِرَةِ ۚ لَا تَبْدِيلَ لِكَلِمَـٰتِ ٱللَّهِ ۚ ذَٰلِكَ هُوَ ٱلْفَوْزُ ٱلْعَظِيمُ ٦٤
“for them there is good news in this life and in the Hereafter- there is no changing the promises of God- that is truly the supreme triumph”.2
The Qurʾān also states, 1 Q. 10:62-63. 2 Q. 10:64.
ٱللَّهُ وَلِىُّ ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ يُخْرِجُهُم مِّنَ ٱلظُّلُمَـٰتِ إِلَى ٱلنُّورِ ۖ وَٱلَّذِينَ كَفَرُوٓا۟ أَوْلِيَآؤُهُمُ ٱلطَّـٰغُوتُ يُخْرِجُونَهُم مِّنَ ٱلنُّورِ إِلَى ٱلظُّلُمَـٰتِ ۗ أُو۟لَـٰٓئِكَ أَصْحَـٰبُ ٱلنَّارِ ۖ هُمْ فِيهَا خَـٰلِدُونَ ٢٥٧
“God is the ally of those who believe: He brings them out of the depths of darkness and into the light. As for the disbelievers, their allies are false gods who take them from the light into the depths of darkness, they are the inhabitants of the Fire, and there they will remain”.3
Allāh is depicted as the ‘walī’ in this verse, guiding believers out of darkness into the light. The implications of this verse are profound as it emphasises that true guidance is solely the domain of Allāh, and those who believe and seek His protection become recipients of His light – thus becoming ʾawliyāʾ. Another crucial verse is,
إِنَّمَا وَلِيُّكُمُ ٱللَّهُ وَرَسُولُهُۥ وَٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ ٱلَّذِينَ يُقِيمُونَ ٱلصَّلَوٰةَ وَيُؤْتُونَ ٱلزَّكَوٰةَ وَهُمْ رَٰكِعُونَ ٥٥
“Your true allies are God, His Messenger, and the believers- those who keep up the prayer, pay the prescribed alms, and bow down in worship”.4
The verse highlights the connection between Allāh, His messenger, and the believers – implying a shared guardianship or friendship and thus reinforcing the notion of the ʾawliyāʾ. Each of these verses underscores the theological foundation for the concept of ʾawliyāʾ, suggesting that the ʾawliyāʾ of Allāh are those who are steadfast in their faith, demonstrate fear of Allāh, and follow His guidance. They contribute to a multi-dimensional understanding of ʾawliyāʾ – as guardians, friends, and those with a profound, intimate relationship with the divine.
These Qurʾānic references established the foundational meaning of ʾawliyāʾ as individuals of
strong faith and righteousness who enjoy a close relationship with God. Ḥadīth literature
further elaborates on the term ʾawliyāʾ. A famous ḥadīth recounts Allāh saying, “Whosoever
shows enmity to someone devoted to Me, I shall be at war with him. My servant draws not
near to Me with anything more loved by Me than the religious duties I have enjoined upon
him, and My servant continues to draw near to Me with supererogatory works so that I shall love him. When I love him, I am his hearing with which he hears, his seeing with which he sees, his hand with which he strikes and his foot with which he walks. Were he to ask something of Me, I would surely give it to him, and if he asked Me for refuge, I would grant it to him. I do not hesitate about anything as much as I hesitate about seizing the soul of My faithful servant: he hates death, and I hate hurting him”.5 This ḥadīth encapsulates the transcendental relationship between the ʾAwliyāʾ and Allāh, where the former embodies the divine attributes through continual devotion. Several ḥadīths provide critical insights into the spiritual and moral characteristics of ʾawliyāʾ and their relationships with Allāh. In another ḥadīth, Prophet Muḥammad states: “One who is hostile to a friend (‘walī’) of Mine I declare war against”. 6 This ḥadīth highlights the special protective relationship between Allāh and His ʾawliyāʾ. It suggests that the ʾawliyāʾ, due to their close relationship with Allāh, are under His divine protection, with hostility towards them considered as hostility towards Allāh Himself. The Prophet also said, “Allāh said: ‘I will declare war against him who shows hostility to a ‘walī’ of Mine’”. 7 This ḥadīth reinforces the protective relationship Allāh has with His ʾawliyāʾ and warns against any form of animosity directed towards them.
A famous ḥadīth reported by Tirmiḏhī adds further nuances to the understanding of ʾawliyāʾ. It reads: “The ʾawliyāʾ of Allāh are those when they are seen, Allāh is remembered”.8 This ḥadīth implies that the ʾawliyāʾ have such a profound influence on others that their very presence invokes the remembrance of Allāh. It underscores the spiritual impact and significance of the ʾawliyāʾ in the broader Muslim community.
The ḥadīth literature provides us with a portrayal of ʾawliyāʾ not merely as pious individuals but as entities with an intensely intimate connection with Allāh, reaching a level where their actions reflect divine guidance and will.
The notion of ʾAwliyāʾ, while simple in its semantic essence, is deeply woven into the fabric of Islamic history, theology, and mysticism. Its origins trace back to the earliest periods of Islamic thought when scholars sought to articulate and define the parameters of sainthood. These early saints were often portrayed as individuals marked by the special divine favour and holiness, chosen by God and endowed with exceptional gifts such as the ability to work miracles. Over time, their graves turned into pilgrimage centres, attracting vast numbers of Muslims seeking their ‘baraka’ (blessing).
From the formative period of Islam, the concept of ʾAwliyāʾ has undergone significant evolution and reinterpretation. It underwent a profound metamorphosis during the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), reflecting a growing spiritual urge to counter the worldliness of the political establishment. However, the concept started to take shape during the rapid expansion of the mystical trend of Sufism. Many figures who later came to be regarded as major saints in orthodox Sunni Islam were early Sufi mystics, such as Hasan of Basra (d. 728), Farqad Sabakhi (d. 729), Dawud Tai (d. 777–781), Rabi’a al-‘Adawiyya (d. 801), Maruf Karkhi (d. 815), and Junayd of Baghdad (d. 910).
As the Islamic world entered the classical period (8th-14th century), the concept of ʾawliyāʾ was subject to deeper scrutiny and interpretation by Islamic scholars. The understanding of ʾawliyāʾ has evolved significantly from its initial emergence in early Islamic literature to its current understanding within widespread practice and academic discourse. Over time, the conceptualisation of ʾawliyāʾ has shifted from primarily associated with close friendship or alliance with Allāh to a complex spiritual category often associated with miraculous deeds and divine love.
In the initial phases of Islamic development, the term ʾawliyāʾ remained closely tied to its Qurʾānic and Ḥadīth foundations, chiefly used to denote those enjoying a special relationship with Allāh due to their piety and righteousness. It was during the classical period, however, that the notion began to see significant evolution and expansion, chiefly due to the influence of Sufi mysticism
The emergence and subsequent rise of philosophy and Sufism as significant facets of Islamic practice catalysed the evolution of the ʾawliyāʾ concept. Al-Kindī, one of the first Arab philosophers and a key figure in the translation of Greek philosophical works, believed that the ʾawliyāʾ were those who had achieved a state of perfect balance and harmony in their souls. He argued that this equilibrium enabled the ʾawliyāʾ to attain spiritual excellence and proximity to God.9 Ibn Miskawayh, a renowned ethicist and philosopher, held a similar view. He saw the ʾawliyāʾ as those who achieved an inner transformation through continuous moral self-development that allowed them to reflect divine attributes in their actions. 10 Al Fārābī and Al-Rāzī both stressed the importance of knowledge and intellectual capacity in becoming a ‘walī’. For Al Fārābī, the ʾawliyāʾ were the philosophers, the ones who had attained the highest form of knowledge. 11 Al-Rāzī, on the other hand, recognised both intellectual and spiritual components in the making of a ‘walī’, where learning was coupled with a deep sense of devotion. Al-Balkhi and Ibn Sina viewed the ʾawliyāʾ as individuals who, through their moral and spiritual practices, had achieved a state of equilibrium and harmony between their physical and spiritual natures. They emphasised the importance of self-purification in attaining nearness to God. Ibn Rushd, also known as Averroes, believed in the rationality of the divine and the ability of humans to access divine truth through intellectual pursuit. His conception of the ʾawliyāʾ, therefore, emphasised the importance of intellectual effort and understanding in achieving closeness to God.12
Many Sufi orders and thinkers, including the likes of Ibn Arabi and Jalāl ad-Dīn Rūmī, embraced the idea of ʾawliyāʾ as spiritual guides capable of intersession and performing miracles, or Karāmāt. 13 ʾawliyāʾ were seen as being imbued with divine love and possessing an intimate knowledge of the divine reality, hence capable of guiding seekers along the spiritual path.14
This Sufi understanding often led to the cult of saints, where ʾawliyāʾ were venerated, their tombs visited for blessings, and their intercession sought. As scholars like Ernst (1997) noted, “the function of the ʾawliyāʾ in this system was to serve as spiritual exemplars and intercessors, whose tombs provided a tangible point of contact with the sacred”.15
Scholars such as Al-Ghazālī, Ibn Taymiyya, and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya made significant contributions to the understanding of ʾawliyāʾ. Al-Ghazālī, a prominent Sufi scholar, viewed ʾawliyāʾ as the spiritual elite, individuals who had transcended beyond merely observing religious duties and had immersed themselves in an intense love for God.16 Ibn Taymiyya, on the other hand, while recognising the existence and spiritual stature of ʾawliyāʾ, cautioned against excess veneration, calling for a balanced approach in respecting these figures. The early Islamic scholars continued the discourse on the ʾawliyāʾ. Al-Ghazālī, a prominent Sufi scholar, further expounded on the attributes of ʾawliyāʾ in his works. He highlighted their exceptional levels of piety, righteousness, and adherence to the Sharīʿa as characteristics of true ʾawliyāʾ. 17 Ibn Taymiyya emphasised the recognition of ʾawliyāʾ as solely within God’s domain, arguing against the excessive veneration of individuals as ʾawliyāʾ. 18 Ibn Taymiyya understood the concept of ʾawliyāʾ within the framework of the Qurʾānic verse,
أَلَآ إِنَّ أَوْلِيَآءَ ٱللَّهِ لَا خَوْفٌ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا هُمْ يَحْزَنُونَ ٦٢
“But for those on God’s side, there is no fear, nor shall they grieve”.19
For Ibn Taymiyya, the ʾawliyāʾ were the pious servants of Allāh, those who had a deep, abiding faith in Allāh and rigorously followed the tenets of Islam. He emphasised that being a ‘walī’ of Allāh was not predicated on performing extraordinary miracles or supernatural feats but rather on a profound level of piety and an unwavering commitment to the Sharīʿa.
He underscored the importance of spiritual purity and rigorous adherence to the Qurʾān and Sunna as the prerequisites of wilaya (sainthood). As he stated in his seminal work, Majmu’ alFatāwā, “The saints are those who follow the Book and the Sunnah and are guided by the light of prophetic knowledge”. 20 In this view, the ʾawliyāʾ are the paragons of Islamic spirituality, exemplifying a deep commitment to following the path of righteousness as laid down in the Qurʾān and the Sunna.
Ibn Taymiyya vehemently criticised practices associated with the veneration of ʾawliyāʾ, such
as shrine visitations and seeking intercession through the saints. He viewed these practices as divergent from the monotheistic principles, even bordering on shirk. His concern was that excessive reverence for ʾawliyāʾ could lead to an elevation of these individuals to a status that should be exclusively reserved for Allāh.
However, despite his stringent views, Ibn Taymiyya did not deny the possibility of Karāmāt among the ʾawliyāʾ. He posited that Karāmāt could occur as a divine blessing for the righteous. Yet, he cautioned believers against interpreting any extraordinary occurrences as signs of an individual’s status as a ‘walī’, reiterating that only Allāh could truly know the status of a ‘walī’. 21
As the Islamic empire expanded across vast territories, incorporating numerous cultures, languages, and traditions, the understanding of ʾawliyāʾ also broadened. It began to encompass a broader spectrum of mystical, devotional, and ascetic practices and beliefs. This expansion and adaptation further cemented the position of ʾawliyāʾ within the social and religious fabric of Muslim societies.
In the post-classical period of Islamic scholarship, the interpretation of ʾawliyāʾ diverged substantially across different schools of thought. Sunni and Shia interpretations, for instance, varied in terms of who could be considered a ‘walī’ and the specific roles they could play within the community. While Sunnis generally accepted the existence of ʾawliyāʾ, they contested the ability of humans to definitively identify them, emphasising that such recognition lies solely within God’s knowledge.22 The Shia, on the other hand, recognised specific individuals – the Imams, descendants of Prophet Muḥammad – as ʾawliyāʾ, attributing to them a central role in guiding the community and interpreting Islamic teachings.23
The concept of ʾawliyāʾ has also been a significant element within various folk and popular
expressions of Islam, particularly in regions like South Asia, North Africa, and the Middle
East. Here, the tombs and shrines of individuals considered ʾawliyāʾ have become focal
points for local devotional practices. They serve not only as places of prayer and reflection
but also as sites for the celebration of the lives and miracles of these revered individuals,
often through annual festivals or ‘Urs. 24
However, these practices have not been without controversy. Within the diverse landscape of Islamic thought, there have been voices of criticism and dissent, particularly from puritanical movements like Wahhabism and Salafism. These groups challenge the legitimacy of veneration practices associated with ʾawliyāʾ, viewing them as innovations (Bidʿa) that deviate from the true essence of Islam.25 More recently, the concept has seen further evolution, chiefly through the lens of Islamic reform movements and academic critiques. Reform movements like Salafism and Wahhabism, aiming to purify Islam from perceived innovations, have generally critiqued the veneration of ʾawliyāʾ and dismissed the possibility of intercession, pushing for a return to the original Qurʾānic concept.26
Simultaneously, contemporary academic studies have further expanded the understanding of ʾawliyāʾ, studying their role in local cultures, rituals, and the socio-political dynamics surrounding their veneration. Cornell (1998) noted that “the ʾawliyāʾ serve as local cultural heroes and social models, shaping and reflecting the needs and aspirations of the communities that venerate them”.27 In this sense, the ʾawliyāʾ are not all that different to the concept of patron saints in Catholicism.
Thus, from its early Qurʾānic roots, through the lens of classical Sufi thought, and onto the scrutiny of modern Islamic reform movements and academia, the concept of ʾawliyāʾ has witnessed a significant evolution and expansion. It has transformed from being a term denoting divine friendship to a complex spiritual category within Islamic practice.
In sum, the historical evolution of ʾawliyāʾ reflects the diverse and dynamic nature of Islamic
thought and practice. The notion of ʾawliyāʾ occupies a central place in Sufism, the Sufi
understanding of ʾawliyāʾ is inherently connected to their broader conceptions of spirituality,
God’s presence, and the path to divine proximity. In Sufism, the ʾawliyāʾ are not only perceived as God’s friends but also as spiritual guides, often termed as Shaykhs or Pīrs, who assist others in their spiritual journey. The Sufis support this concept with an esoteric reading of the Qur’anic verse,
يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ ٱتَّقُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ وَكُونُوا۟ مَعَ ٱلصَّـٰدِقِينَ ١١٩
“You who believe, be mindful of God: stand with those who are true”.
The Sufi tradition’s spiritual guidance concept, characterised by a mentoring relationship between the Shaykh or Pīr and the disciple or murīd, bears significant correlations with practices seen in other religious traditions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, and ancient Persian religions. While each tradition upholds its unique elements, commonalities can be traced in their shared emphasis on a mentor-disciple relationship and the pursuit of spiritual growth. It is, however, imperative to discern between parallel practices and direct influence, the latter being an assertion needing robust historical and textual evidence.
Nonetheless, the potential influences of these other spiritual traditions on Sufi concepts of spiritual guidance are worthy of exploration. During the Islamic Golden Age (8th to 14th century CE), Islamic scholars had notable interaction with Hindu, Buddhist, and Persian cultures, a fact that scholars such as Seyyed Hossein Nasr argue may have influenced the development of certain Islamic thought aspects, including Sufism. 29
Hinduism’s influence may be traced in the close-knit bond between the Sufi Shaykh and the murīd, a relationship akin to the Hindu Guru-Shishya tradition. This bond forms the bedrock for imparting spiritual knowledge and guidance on the path of spiritual enlightenment. In the ‘Upadeśa Sāhasrī,’ a principal Advaita Vedānta work by Śankara, the Guru is depicted as a guide leading the Shishya from ignorance to knowledge of the ultimate reality. 30
Similarly, Buddhism’s influence may be discerned in the focus on inward spiritual transformation and purification within Sufi teachings, a theme heavily stressed in Buddhism.
The concept of a spiritual mentor is integral to both, with Buddhist texts such as the Dhammapada underscoring the importance of spiritual guidance in the path to liberation. 31
Moreover, ancient Persian religions such as Zoroastrianism were prevalent in Persia and Central Asia when Islam began to spread in these regions. Zoroastrian priests, known as Dastūrs, had a similar role to the Sufi Shaykh, which may have influenced the evolving Sufi concept of the spiritual guide.
However, while these correlations exist, the fundamental basis of Sufism and the concept of spiritual guidance within it is deeply rooted in Islamic theology, particularly the Qurʾān and Sunnah. The Prophet Muḥammad is seen as the ultimate spiritual guide for all Muslims, as stated in the Qurʾān,
لَّقَدْ كَانَ لَكُمْ فِى رَسُولِ ٱللَّهِ أُسْوَةٌ حَسَنَةٌۭ لِّمَن كَانَ يَرْجُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ وَٱلْيَوْمَ ٱلْـَٔاخِرَ وَذَكَرَ ٱللَّهَ كَثِيرًۭا ٢١
“The Messenger of God is an excellent model for those of you who put your hope in God and the Last Day and remember Him often”. 32
Al-Ghazālī, emphasise the need for a spiritual guide for an individual’s spiritual journey.33 Thus, while external influences may have shaped the Sufi tradition’s specific practices and perspectives, the core of Sufi spiritual guidance remains grounded in Islamic teachings. AlGhazālī described the ʾawliyāʾ as those who have traversed the path of obligatory religious observance and have advanced to the levels of supererogatory acts of devotion. He writes, “They have been given to drink from the chalice of love and have lost their senses; then they have been nurtured on the bed of care and longing love”.34 This highlights a profound sense of love and devotion to God and the concept of fanāʾ (annihilation of self in God) in the state of the ʾawliyāʾ, which Sufis explain with the verse,
كُلُّ مَنْ عَلَيْهَا فَانٍۢ ٢٦
وَيَبْقَىٰ وَجْهُ رَبِّكَ ذُو ٱلْجَلَـٰلِ وَٱلْإِكْرَامِ ٢٧
“Everyone on earth perishes; all that remains is the Face of your Lord, full of majesty, bestowing honour”.35
Similarly, Ibn Arabī, one of the most influential Sufi mystics, wrote extensively about sainthood in his Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya. He delineated the ʾawliyāʾ as individuals in constant communion with God, being entirely surrendered to His will. He stated, “God’s saints are under His domes; no prophet knows them save a prophet, no saint knows them to save a saint”. 36
However, Sufi interpretations of ʾawliyāʾ have not been universally accepted within the broader Islamic discourse. Some scholars, like Ibn Taymiyya, critiqued the excessive veneration of ʾawliyāʾ and cautioned against practices that might infringe on Tawḥīd. 37
Throughout their writings, Sufis have extolled the spiritual states and stations of the ʾawliyāʾ. As described in Sufi writings, the metaphysical experiences of the ʾawliyāʾ serve as guidance for aspirants on the spiritual path. For instance, ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī, the eponymous founder of the Qadiriyya order of Sufism, characterised ʾawliyāʾ as the inheritors of the Prophets’ spiritual knowledge. He believed that the ʾawliyāʾ are those who have realised the Oneness of God not merely in intellectual terms but as a lived reality, stating, “The ‘walī’ is he who is with the Truth in every state”.38
Rūmī, the celebrated Persian Sufi poet, elaborates further on the ʾawliyāʾ’s nature. Rūmī’s writings underscore the understanding of ʾawliyāʾ as individuals immersed in divine love and ecstasy. He writes, “The ʾawliyāʾ are those who have died before death and whose lives are with their Lord”.39
The concept of ʾawliyāʾ in Sufism is thus closely tied with its esoteric traditions of spiritual
mentorship and discipleship, inner purification, and the aspirant’s journey towards God realisation. However, it must be noted that these interpretations are specific to Sufi philosophy and are not universally accepted across all Islamic sects or interpretations. Understanding these perspectives within the broader spectrum of Islamic thought, and the specific context of Sufi mysticism is crucial.
The interpretation of ʾawliyāʾ has evolved over time. Comparing and contrasting Sufi interpretations with the earlier usage provides a rich insight into the diversity of thought within Islam. The Qurʾānic understanding of ʾawliyāʾ, as established in the nascent period of Islamic civilisation, primarily represented the allies or friends of Allāh, distinguished by their faith and piety. Early interpretations, as seen in the ḥadīth literature and works of classical scholars such as al-Ghazālī and Ibn Taymiyya, further enhanced this understanding. These foundational interpretations focus on the ʾawliyāʾ’s religious observance, moral righteousness, and a distinct relationship with the divine, anchored in both adherence to religious duties and the pursuit of additional devotional acts.40
In contrast, Sufi interpretations have expanded on these concepts, bringing a more esoteric and mystical dimension to the understanding of ʾawliyāʾ. Sufi scholars, such as ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī and Rūmī, have emphasised the ʾawliyāʾ’s transformative spiritual experiences, inner purification, and realisation of divine unity.41 The ʾawliyāʾ, in Sufi understanding, transcend conventional religious practice, achieving a state of constant divine remembrance and existential unity with the divine.
However, these Sufi interpretations do not entirely diverge from the foundational understanding. Rather, they build upon the earlier interpretations, adding layers of mystical insight. Moral righteousness, observance of religious duties, and the desire for proximity to God remain consistent elements across both the earlier and later interpretations.
Yet, the emphasis on mystical experiences and existential unity with the divine has occasionally been a source of contention, with some scholars cautioning against potential deviations from monotheistic principles or the deification of individuals as ʾawliyāʾ.
Therefore, while the Sufi interpretation of ʾawliyāʾ offers profound spiritual insights, it also underlines the need for balanced understanding within the broader framework of Islamic theology.
The Sufi interpretation of ʾawliyāʾ, enriched with its mystic and esoteric elements, can be best understood through several historical and contemporary examples, providing a richer and tangible understanding of the concept.
One prominent example is that of Rābiʿa al-ʿAdawiyya (717-801), a renowned female Sufi saint from Basra. Her life, as recorded in Farīd ad-Dīn ʿAṭṭār’s “Tadhkirat al-ʾAwliyāʾ” (The Memorial of the Saints), is a testament to the Sufi understanding of ʾawliyāʾ. 42 Rābiʿa was noted for her absolute devotion and love for God, which was unattached to the fear of hell or the desire for paradise. Her famous prayer, “If I worship You for fear of Hell, burn me in Hell, and if I worship You in hope of Paradise, exclude me from Paradise. But if I worship You for Your Own sake, grudge me not Your everlasting Beauty,” reflects the profound spiritual state of an ʾawliyāʾ in Sufi tradition.43 Another case is that of Al-Junayd of Baghdad (830-910), a key figure in developing the Sufi school of thought. His teachings underscored the significance of “fanāʾ” (annihilation of the self in God) and “baqāʾ” (subsistence with God), foundational concepts within Sufism.44 His life and teachings demonstrate the transformative journey of an ʾawliyāʾ from self-effacement to a state of divine consciousness. The story of Mansur Al-Hallaj (858-922), documented by Louis Massignon in “The Passion of Al-Hallaj,” offers a compelling example of the mystical dimensions of Sufi ʾawliyāʾ. 45 Al-Hallaj’s infamous declaration, “Ana’l-Ḥaqq” (I am the Truth), represented the ultimate stage of “fanāʾ”, a state of oneness with the divine. This claim, while controversial and leading to his execution, is often cited as an illustration of the intense spiritual experiences of Sufi ʾawliyāʾ. The contemporary example of Bāba Yārā (1920-1969), a Sufi saint from Afghanistan, elucidates the continuation of these concepts in modern times. Recorded in the ethnographic study by David Edwards, “Heroes of the Age,” Bāba Yārā was revered for his ascetic lifestyle, spiritual insight, and the miracles attributed to him. His life manifests the enduring relevance of the Sufi concept of ʾawliyāʾ. 46 .
The concept of ʾawliyāʾ, while rooted in the foundational texts and classical interpretations of Islam, continues to influence contemporary Islamic rituals and practices significantly. This influence is seen across a wide range of activities, from daily personal piety to communal religious observances.
One of the critical areas of influence is in the realm of personal devotion and spiritual practices. For many Muslims, the lives of the ʾawliyāʾ, as recorded in hagiographies and traditional accounts, serve as spiritual templates.47 These narratives often detail the piety, devotion, asceticism, and moral conduct of the ʾawliyāʾ, providing models for individuals seeking to deepen their own spiritual journey. Many Muslims undertake practices such as dhikr (remembrance of God), fasting, night prayers, and other forms of worship inspired by the examples of the ʾawliyāʾ.
The influence of the ʾawliyāʾ is also seen in the practice of visiting tombs and shrines of revered individuals, a tradition common in many parts of the Islamic world. These visits, often associated with seeking blessings (baraka) and intercession (tawassul), are inspired by the belief in the ʾawliyāʾ’s spiritual status even after their physical demise.48 While these practices are contentious, their prevalence underscores the enduring impact of the concept of ʾawliyāʾ.
In the communal sphere, the narratives and teachings of the ʾawliyāʾ continue to be celebrated through mawlids (birth anniversaries) and ‘urs (death anniversaries). These occasions often involve reciting the lives and miracles of the ʾawliyāʾ, devotional music and poetry, communal prayers, and sharing of meals.49
In the realm of spirituality and mysticism, the ʾawliyāʾ’s teachings continue to guide the
practices and teachings of various Sufi orders (tariqas). These include spiritual exercises, ethical instructions, and modes of discipleship that shape the spiritual life of countless Muslims worldwide. 50
One of the most widely recognised practices is the veneration of shrines and tombs of the ʾawliyāʾ, often known as Ziyāra. This ritual involves visiting the resting places of these revered figures as a form of spiritual pilgrimage. Believers engage in prayers, recitation of the Qur’an, and supplications, seeking spiritual blessings (baraka) from these individuals who are perceived as God’s close friends.51 Notable examples include the shrine of Abdul Qadir Jilani in Baghdad, the tomb of Rūmī in Konya, and the Mausoleum of Shaykh Zaynudin in Tashkent.
Devotional practices influenced by the ʾawliyāʾ’s life also abound. These include intensified practices of prayer, fasting, and night vigils drawn from stories about the ʾawliyāʾ’s piety and asceticism.52 There are also specific forms of dhikr (remembrance of God) associated with ʾawliyāʾ that continue to be practised.
In the realm of Sufism, the influence of the ʾawliyāʾ is particularly pronounced. Sufi orders (tariqas) often trace their spiritual lineage (Silsila) to renowned ʾawliyāʾ and base their teachings and practices on their spiritual insights. Examples include the Qadiriyya order, which traces its lineage to Abdul Qadir Jilani, and the Mevlevi order, founded by the followers of Rūmī. 53
The concept of ʾawliyāʾ, while having significant spiritual value and influence within certain
Islamic traditions, has not escaped academic scrutiny and criticism. These debates largely
revolve around the interpretation of Qur’anic texts, the roles and status of ʾawliyāʾ, and their
associated practices. Interpretation of Qur’anic texts is one of the focal points of academic
debate. Some scholars argue that the term ʾAwliyāʾ in the Qurʾān refers broadly to all devout
and righteous believers rather than a particular category of saintly individuals.54 They argue that saint veneration risks creating a class of intercessors, which could compromise monotheism and direct communication with God.55
The perceived status and roles of ʾawliyāʾ have also been contentious. Critics argue that the elevated status accorded to the ʾawliyāʾ in some traditions can lead to a personality cult, detracting from the worship of God.56 They posit that the extraordinary powers or miracles (karāmāt) attributed to the ʾawliyāʾ are often based on weak or fabricated ḥadith and can foster superstition and magical thinking.57
The practices associated with ʾawliyāʾ, such as the veneration of tombs, shrines, and relics, are also a major area of debate. Scholars like Ibn Taymiyya famously critiqued these practices, arguing that they could lead to shirk. 58
The role of ʾawliyāʾ has been a subject of ongoing debate and controversy, with various perspectives put forward by scholars and practitioners alike. The controversies surrounding the role of ʾawliyāʾ are complex and multifaceted, reflecting broader debates within the Muslim world about religious practice, authenticity, and authority. The Sufi understanding of ʾawliyāʾ presents an enriched tapestry of spiritual intimacy with the Divine, granting the ʾawliyāʾ a unique station in the religious and societal landscape. However, this elevated status and the subsequent practices associated with the ʾawliyāʾ have often been at the centre of discussions on bidʿa.
The veneration of the ʾawliyāʾ, has often been associated with bidʿa. This is particularly the case with certain practices such as visiting of shrines (Ziyāra), seeking intercession (tawassul) through the ʾawliyāʾ. 59
For instance, the act of Ziyāra or visiting the shrines of ʾawliyāʾ is not prescribed in the
Qurʾān or Ḥadīth. Critics argue that this practice diverts from monotheistic worship towards
a form of saint veneration.60 Similarly, the practice of tawassul, or seeking intercession through the ʾawliyāʾ is a gross innovation, as intercession should be sought directly from God.61
Furthermore, the Sufi understanding of ʾawliyāʾ often entails a profound respect for these spiritually enlightened individuals who have achieved a deep, intimate connection with God.62 The Qasidas (poems) and Nashīds (songs) dedicated to the ʾawliyāʾ often contain lavish praise and admiration, expressing the spiritual accomplishments and virtues of these individuals. The ʾawliyāʾ are frequently attributed to having unparalleled wisdom, deep insight, and a powerful connection with the Divine that transcends the ordinary. Some examples include the praise filled Qasidas dedicated to figures like Shaykh ‘Abdul Qadir Jilani or Moinuddin Chishti, where they are revered as grand spiritual authorities.63 However, such an over-exaggeration blurs the lines between veneration and worship; this excessive praise could unintentionally lead to a form of shirk, even if this is not the intention of the individuals expressing the praise.64
Beyond shirk, other risks are associated with the over-exaggeration of ʾawliyāʾ within the Sufi tradition. There have been unfortunate instances where individuals claiming to be ʾawliyāʾ have subjected followers to psychological and physical abuses. The power dynamic inherent in the relationship between a spiritual guide and a disciple can sometimes create a conducive environment for abuse. The guide’s authority, if unchecked, can lead to harmful behaviours being justified under the guise of spiritual instruction or development. This is not unique to Sufism but is a risk inherent in any structure where individuals influence others significantly. 65
For instance, there have been cases where supposed ʾawliyāʾ have manipulated followers emotionally and psychologically under the pretence of guiding them on their spiritual journey. This manipulation can lead to followers feeling trapped, confused, and distressed, believing that resistance or questioning may equate to spiritual failure.66 Physically, there have been reports of leaders causing harm to their disciples, rationalising this as a form of ‘spiritual training’ or ‘cleansing’. These incidents can involve physical punishments or imposing extreme practices that put individuals’ health and well-being at risk.67
Case Study 1: Emotional Manipulation
One of the most publicised cases of emotional manipulation in a Sufi context is that of Shaykh Nuh Keller’s group. Keller, a renowned Sufi Shaykh, has been accused of emotionally manipulating his followers, leading to negative psychological impacts. Critics of the group claim that individuals who raise questions about the Shaykh’s teaching are labelled ‘arrogant’ and made to feel spiritually inferior, leading to feelings of guilt, fear, and spiritual inadequacy.68 This control and manipulation can have profound effects on followers’ mental health, with reports of some disciples suffering from depression, anxiety and other psychological disorders as a result.69
Case Study 2: Physical Harm
Another case involves a Sufi group in Turkey led by a supposed ‘walī’ known as Ahmet Mahmut Ünlü, also known as ‘Cübbeli Ahmet Hoca’. He was investigated for incitement to violence when he allegedly instructed a follower to inflict physical harm on a journalist, Ahmet Hakan, who had criticised him.70 This incident highlights how the reverence for ʾawliyāʾ can be manipulated to justify physical violence.
Case Study 3: Spiritual Abuse
A study conducted by Dr. Marat Shterin and Dr. Sarah Lewis of King’s College, London,
revealed that followers of certain Sufi orders have experienced a form of abuse termed
‘spiritual abuse’. This involves the manipulation of a person’s spirituality by an individual in a position of spiritual authority, such as an ʾawliyāʾ, to gain power and control over them.71 Spiritual abuse can involve emotional abuse, social isolation, and even sexual exploitation.
Another instance of the misuse of the concept of ʾawliyāʾ can be found in the case of Shaykh Fethullah Gülen’s group, the Gülen movement. Followers of Gülen regard him as a spiritual guide and are said to show an excessive devotion to him, to the point that it takes on cult-like behaviours.72 Former members of the group have reported being subjected to brainwashing techniques and have spoken about the psychological toll that leaving the group took on them.73
Case Study 5: Financial Exploitation
The infamous case of the Naqshbandi-Haqqani Sufi Order led by Shaykh Nazim, reveals another dark side of misused authority. While Shaykh Nazim himself was a widely respected Sufi leader, some leaders within his order have been accused of financially exploiting their followers. Allegations range from excessive demands for monetary donations to fraud and extortion.74 This manipulation and exploitation betray the trust and spiritual commitment of the followers, causing emotional and financial hardship.
Case Study 6: Sexual Abuse
Sexual abuse is another severe form of misuse that has been reported. The spiritual authority vested in ʾawliyāʾ can create power dynamics that may be exploited to commit such abuses. An example of this is the case involving the leader of a Sufi order in North Africa who was convicted for sexual assault and human trafficking.75 The leader used his position of spiritual influence to manipulate and sexually exploit his followers, a gross violation of trust and abuse of power.
Case Study 7: Violation of Individual Rights
In 2002, a significant controversy erupted in Senegal around a renowned Sufi marabout, Cheikh Béthio Thioune, of the Mouride Brotherhood. Thioune was implicated in a scandal involving human trafficking and forced labour, primarily targeting young talibés (students) under his spiritual guidance.76 This form of exploitation, veiled under the guise of religious devotion, infringed upon the rights and freedoms of vulnerable individuals in his tutelage.
Case Study 8: Misinterpretation and Misuse of Sufi Teachings
The Sufi order of Tijaniyyah, prominent in West Africa, was embroiled in a scandal when it was reported that certain individuals within the order were exploiting the concept of “khalwah” or spiritual seclusion. Instead of the practice serving as a period for spiritual reflection and connection with the divine, it was alleged that some ʾawliyāʾ were manipulating the concept to isolate and psychologically manipulate followers.77
These examples shed light on the potential for gross misuse of the concept of ʾawliyāʾ and the hazards it can pose
The interpretation of the concept of ʾawliyāʾ within Sufism is dynamic, varying across different Sufi orders, cultures, and historical contexts. While the mainstream understanding, derived from Qurʾānic and ḥadīth sources, denotes the ʾawliyāʾ as righteous and pious Muslims close to God, certain instances contradict this normative view. A notable example of this is the recognition of non-Muslim individuals, particularly within Hindu communities, as Sufi saints or ʾawliyāʾ.
A prime illustration is found within the Naqshbandi order, which has a substantial presence in
South Asia, where Islam and Hinduism have coexisted for centuries.78 Certain branches of the
Naqshbandi order have recognised Hindu individuals as Shaykhs, or spiritual guides. This has
stemmed from a broader understanding of spirituality that transcends the bounds of religious identity. In such instances, the emphasis is on universal spiritual values and mystical experiences rather than adherence to a specific religious creed.79
This phenomenon is not without controversy, as it challenges the traditional Islamic understanding of ʾawliyāʾ. The Qurʾān states, “Behold, the ʾawliyāʾ of Allāh – there will be “…no fear concerning them, nor will they grieve”.80 Classical Islamic scholars such as alQurṭubī have interpreted this verse to mean that the ʾawliyāʾ are devout Muslims who have true faith and perform righteous deeds.81
From this perspective, recognising non-Muslims as ʾawliyāʾ contradicts the Qurʾānic definition and creates a theological conundrum. It raises questions about the boundaries of religious identity and the parameters of spiritual authority within Islam.
It is worth noting, however, that Sufism has often been characterised by a spirit of inclusivity and an appreciation for the shared mystical experiences found across different religious traditions. Some Sufi scholars have advocated for an understanding of ʾawliyāʾ that recognises the possibility of non-Muslims possessing spiritual insight and wisdom.82
However, such interpretations have faced intense criticism from those who argue that this broad interpretation dilutes the distinct Islamic character of the concept of ʾawliyāʾ and deviates from normative Islamic teachings. It has ignited debates on the nature of religious authority, inclusivity, and the interpretation of Islamic concepts. The inclusion of nonMuslims into the status of ʾawliyāʾ by Sufis begs the question of what value does this status have?
The greatest risk associated with the Sufi notion of ʾawliyāʾ is Shirk. In Sufi traditions,
ʾawliyāʾ are often believed to possess karāmāt, and their intercession is sought in
supplications. This has led to practices such as visiting tombs of ʾawliyāʾ (Ziyāra), venerating their relics, and attributing supernatural powers to them.83 Such traditions attribute partners to God by assigning to ʾawliyāʾ divine-like powers and capacities, which contravenes tawḥīd.
Classical Sufi scholars like Ibn ʿArabī argued that there’s a clear distinction between the essence of God and the actions of God. While the essence of God is unique and exclusive, His actions, such as providing sustenance or answering prayers, can manifest through His creation. As such, the ʾawliyāʾ, being close to God, could be the means through which God’s actions are manifested without infringing upon His uniqueness.84
However, this nuanced understanding may not always be maintained in popular practices. The elevation of ʾawliyāʾ to saintly status, the attribution of extraordinary miracles to them, and the excessive devotion directed towards them could potentially slide into shirk if not properly understood and monitored.
Intercession sought through the ʾawliyāʾ finds its genesis in a perhaps misconstrued comprehension of their divine proximity and spiritual eminence. Al-Ghazālī’s monumental creation, Iḥyā ʾulūm al-Dīn, expounds on the spiritual hierarchy, portraying the ʾawliyāʾ as beings in the higher echelons of divine proximity. The homage to the ʾawliyāʾ is not an innovation. As pointed out by Al-Majlisi, instances of such deference can be traced to the nascent stages of Islam. 85 The deviation arises when adulation crosses the limits of homage and enters the domain of worship, inadvertently culminating in Shirk.
Ibn Taymiyya sternly cautions against this practice, deeming it a major form of Shirk. The intentions and comprehension behind intercession dictate whether it is permissible or not, as emphasised by Ibn Taymiyya in Kitāb al-Īmān. However, societal customs and traditions often overshadow the meticulous equilibrium advocated by scholars. The implications of Shirk are grave. As articulated by Al-Ghazālī in Iḥyā ʾulūm al-Dīn, the penalty for Shirk is unending damnation. Yet, he also reaffirms that Allāh’s mercy encompasses all, and repentance is accepted by those who commit shirk out of ignorance if they refrain once they comprehend their mistake. The Qurʾān sternly warns against idolising others alongside Allāh,
قُلِ ٱدْعُوا۟ ٱلَّذِينَ زَعَمْتُم مِّن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ ۖ لَا يَمْلِكُونَ مِثْقَالَ ذَرَّةٍۢ فِى ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَلَا فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ وَمَا لَهُمْ فِيهِمَا مِن شِرْكٍۢ وَمَا لَهُۥ مِنْهُم مِّن ظَهِيرٍۢ ٢٢
“Say, ‘Pray to your so-called gods besides God: they do not control even the weight of a speck of dust in heaven or earth, nor do they have any share in them, nor are any of them any help to God”.86 (Q. 34:22).
This verse warns against seeking intercession from any besides Allāh, a form of Shirk. The ʾawliyāʾ, irrespective of their devoutness, cannot override divine sovereignty or claim His exclusive rights. In a ḥadīth qudsi, Allāh says, “I am so self-sufficient that I do not need an associate. Thus, he who does an action for someone else’s sake, as well as Mine, will have that action renounced by Me to him whom he associated with Me”.87 In this line of discourse, we can infer that the veneration of ʾawliyāʾ holds the potential danger of leading into the territory of Shirk if not carefully managed. This concern can especially come into play when an individual’s status or proximity to the Divine is raised to such an extent that it eclipses the exclusive dominion of Allāh. The ʾawliyāʾ, despite their perceived spiritual ascension, remain creatures of Allāh, bound to His command, and not co-equal partners in His divine reign.
Thus, while the ʾawliyāʾ are highly esteemed within the Sufi tradition, and their close relationship with Allāh is recognised and respected, their veneration should never reach the point where it challenges or dilutes the monotheistic essence of Islam. Any such approach could potentially lead to the grave sin of Shirk, as it distorts the clear delineation between the Creator and the created.
Moreover, a well-known Ḥadīth serves as a clear warning against the dangers of Shirk: “Avoid the seven deadly sins.” The people enquired, ‘O Messenger of Allāh, what are they?’ He replied, “Associating anything with Allāh…”. 88 This Ḥadīth again accentuates the importance of strictly upholding Tawḥīd and not associating any partners with Allāh.
In conclusion, the Sufi understanding of ʾawliyāʾ, while it embodies a profound spiritual dimension of Islam, must be navigated with caution to prevent any accidental drift towards the boundaries of Shirk. It is a delicate journey, and the boundaries must be well-respected to ensure that one’s devotion and love for the ʾawliyāʾ do not infringe upon the undivided divinity and sovereignty of Allāh.
Fundamentally, the Qurʾān promotes the direct connection between the worshipper and Allāh, discouraging reliance on intercession. A noteworthy verse that encapsulates this concept is found in Sūrah Ghāfir,
وَقَالَ رَبُّكُمُ ٱدْعُونِىٓ أَسْتَجِبْ لَكُمْ ۚ إِنَّ ٱلَّذِينَ يَسْتَكْبِرُونَ عَنْ عِبَادَتِى سَيَدْخُلُونَ جَهَنَّمَ دَاخِرِينَ ٦٠
“Your Lord says, ‘Call on Me and I will answer you; those who are too proud to serve Me will enter Hell humiliated’”.89
The phraseology of this verse indicates a direct line of communication between the supplicant and Allāh, emphasising the concept of Allāh’s approachability and responsiveness. Similarly, in Sūra al-Baqara,
وَإِذَا سَأَلَكَ عِبَادِى عَنِّى فَإِنِّى قَرِيبٌ ۖ أُجِيبُ دَعْوَةَ ٱلدَّاعِ إِذَا دَعَانِ ۖ فَلْيَسْتَجِيبُوا۟ لِى وَلْيُؤْمِنُوا۟ بِى لَعَلَّهُمْ يَرْشُدُونَ ١٨٦
“[Prophet], if My servants ask you about Me, I am near. I respond to those who call Me, so
let them respond to Me, and believe in Me, so that they may be guided”.90
This verse reiterates Allāh’s nearness to His servants and His readiness to answer their supplications. These Qurʾānic references reinforce that Allāh alone is the sovereign, omniscient entity capable of granting all requests. Thus, approaching Allāh directly without intermediaries is sufficient and encouraged by Allāh.
أَلَا لِلَّهِ ٱلدِّينُ ٱلْخَالِصُ ۚ وَٱلَّذِينَ ٱتَّخَذُوا۟ مِن دُونِهِۦٓ أَوْلِيَآءَ مَا نَعْبُدُهُمْ إِلَّا لِيُقَرِّبُونَآ إِلَى ٱللَّهِ زُلْفَىٰٓ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَحْكُمُ بَيْنَهُمْ فِى مَا هُمْ فِيهِ يَخْتَلِفُونَ ۗ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ لَا يَهْدِى مَنْ هُوَ كَـٰذِبٌۭ كَفَّارٌۭ ٣
“true devotion is due to God alone. [As for] those who choose other protectors beside Him, saying, ‘We only worship them because they bring us nearer to God,’ God Himself will judge between them regarding their differences. God does not guide any ungrateful liar”. 91
This verse clearly states that we are only in need of Allāh, no intermediary can aid us or protect us, rather, we should turn to Allāh alone. Moreover, numerous ḥadīth elucidate the permissibility of direct supplication to Allāh. In one such tradition narrated by Anas ibn Mālik, Prophet Muḥammad is reported to have said: “When one of you makes a supplication, he should supplicate with a will and should not say, ‘O Allāh, confer upon me if You like,’ for there is none who can compel Allāh to do something against His Will”.92 This ḥadīth reaffirms the direct relationship between the believer and Allāh in the context of supplication.
more, the notion of Tawassul is often misunderstood. As elucidated by Shaykh alIslām Ibn Taymiyya in his ‘Majmūʿ al-Fatāwā’, one’s Tawassul should be through Allāh’s names, attributes, or righteous deeds, rather than relying on other beings, including ʾawliyāʾ.
In conclusion, the theological discourse within Islam firmly establishes the permissibility and, indeed, the recommendation of directly supplicating to Allāh without seeking intercession through ʾawliyāʾ. This direct line of communication upholds Tawḥīd, preserving the exclusivity of Allāh’s authority and ensuring that one’s faith remains free from any potential forms of Shirk
The Qurʾān articulates this sentiment in numerous verses. One of the most notable instances,
قُل لَّن يُصِيبَنَآ إِلَّا مَا كَتَبَ ٱللَّهُ لَنَا هُوَ مَوْلَىٰنَا ۚ وَعَلَى ٱللَّهِ فَلْيَتَوَكَّلِ ٱلْمُؤْمِنُونَ ٥١
“Say, ‘Only what God has decreed will happen to us. He is our Master: let the believers put their trust in God’”.93
This verse not only acknowledges Allāh’s sovereignty over all events, but it also implores believers to seek refuge in Him alone. Further on,
وَيَرْزُقْهُ مِنْ حَيْثُ لَا يَحْتَسِبُ ۚ وَمَن يَتَوَكَّلْ عَلَى ٱللَّهِ فَهُوَ حَسْبُهُۥٓ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ بَـٰلِغُ أَمْرِهِۦ ۚ قَدْ جَعَلَ ٱللَّهُ لِكُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ قَدْرًۭا ٣
“and will provide for them from an unexpected source; God will be enough for those who put their trust in Him. God achieves His purpose; God has set a due measure for everything”.94
This verse serves as an assurance to believers that Allāh is indeed capable of satisfying all their needs. Furthermore, ḥadīth literature affirms this belief. A narration by ʿUmar ibn alKhaṭṭāb narrates the Prophet Muḥammad as saying, “If you all rely on Allāh with due reliance, He would certainly give you provision as He gives it to birds who go forth hungry in the morning and return with a full belly at dusk”.95 This ḥadīth illustrates the concept of Tawakkul and affirms Allāh as the Provider and Sustainer.
However, the reliance on Allāh does not negate the need for human effort. Islamic teachings emphasise the balance between trust in divine providence and the necessity of human endeavour. As evidenced in the ḥadīth narrated by Anas ibn Mālik, “The Prophet Muḥammad said, ‘Trust in Allāh but tie your camel'”.96 This metaphor highlights the balance between trust in Allāh and personal responsibility.
Moreover, the Islamic scholarly tradition teaches that reliance on Allāh extends beyond material needs to encompass spiritual, emotional, and psychological needs. The Qurʾān teaches that remembrance of Allāh (Dhikr) brings tranquillity to hearts,
ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ وَتَطْمَئِنُّ قُلُوبُهُم بِذِكْرِ ٱللَّهِ ۗ أَلَا بِذِكْرِ ٱللَّهِ تَطْمَئِنُّ ٱلْقُلُوبُ ٢٨
“those who have faith and whose hearts find peace in the remembrance of God- truly it is in the remembrance of God that hearts find peace”.97
Therefore, from both the Qurʾānic and ḥadīth perspectives, as well as the interpretations of esteemed Islamic scholars, the faith unequivocally establishes the sufficiency of Allāh in fulfilling all the needs of a believer. It encourages absolute trust in Allāh, implying that no entity, however, revered, can provide what only Allāh can. Allāh is sufficient for all needs, and believers should place their trust in Him. In conclusion, the concept of a Walī has evolved throughout Islamic history; the early ascetics were Muslims of the utmost piety, true paragons of the Qurʾān and Sunna. However, as external sources influenced Muslims, Sufism developed a unique metaphysics and esoteric readings of the Qurʾān which turned the walī into a saint with unique insights into deep esoteric knowledge and hidden truths, capable of performing feats beyond that of a normal Muslim without this knowledge. As such, we can see that the term ʾawliyāʾ has deviated from the intended meaning in Qurʾān. The true ʾawliyāʾ are Muslims who adhere to the Qurʾān and Sunna, avoid sins and seek closeness with Allāh alone. These are individuals who manifest tawhid into their lives, encompass the Sharīʿa and serve Allāh. This does not require a guide or membership to a Sufi order. Instead, it requires reliance and obedience, worship of Allāh alone. The true ʾawliyāʾ call on Allāh alone and invite others to do the same; it is the misguided and lost individuals that seek to establish intermediaries with Allāh or claim they can intercede when no revelation has come to confirm this.
Summary
The concept of ʾawliyāʾ, poetically translated as “friends of Allah,” resonates with profound spiritual depth within the Islamic fabric. This term goes beyond surface-level understanding, as it encapsulates individuals who have cultivated a unique, heartfelt closeness and camaraderie with the Divine.
Originating from the Arabic root w-l-y, denoting intimacy and companionship, ʾawliyāʾ unveils layers of spiritual profundity. The word “walī” in Arabic gracefully extends its meanings to not just a friend, but also a guardian, protector, and unwavering supporter. It frequently refers to the revered Islamic saints, perceived as the true confidants of Allah. These individuals are celebrated for their exceptional devotion, piety, and an elevated consciousness of Allah, navigating the journey of life with unwavering faith.
The Qurʾān, Islam’s sacred text, eloquently speaks to the essence of ʾawliyāʾ, providing divine assurance to those aligned with Allah: “Behold! Verily, no fear shall be upon the friends of Allah, nor shall they grieve.” (Qur’an 10:62). This scriptural gem underscores the spiritual liberation and serenity promised to the ʾawliyāʾ, affirming their blessed state in both this life and the hereafter.
Historically, the interpretation of ʾawliyāʾ has been enriched and diversified through various intellectual lenses. Al-Ghazālī, a luminary in Islamic thought, saw them as spiritual virtuosos transcending conventional religious practices, immersing themselves in divine love. Contrarily, Ibn Taymiyya emphasized staunch piety and adherence to the Sharīʿa, highlighting a life anchored in divine law over miraculous feats.
Sufi mystics, like Ibn Arabi and Rūmī, painted the ʾawliyāʾ as divine conduits of love and guidance, illuminating the spiritual path for seekers. Their resting places transformed into sanctuaries of reverence and spiritual intercession, connecting the earthly realm with the divine. Their enduring legacy continues to inspire and nurture souls on the quest for spiritual enlightenment.
Yet, the veneration of ʾawliyāʾ has sparked debates and divergences within the Islamic community. Movements such as Wahhabism and Salafism voice concerns over practices they deem as divergences from Islamic orthodoxy. Simultaneously, academic discourse broadens our perception of ʾawliyāʾ, recognizing their influence as cultural beacons and role models.
A pivotal debate hinges on inclusivity—can non-Muslims be recognized as ʾawliyāʾ based on shared spiritual virtues? This question challenges conventional Islamic viewpoints and necessitates a nuanced dialogue rooted in compassion and understanding.
The reverence of ʾawliyāʾ, while ingrained in Sufi tradition, necessitates mindful engagement. Striking a balance between veneration and worship is paramount, ensuring we do not compromise the Islamic tenet of tawḥīd, the absolute oneness of God. This delicate dance requires vigilance against potential misuse and abuse, safeguarding the integrity of the spiritual journey.
In navigating these spiritual terrains, we anchor our beliefs in the Qurʾān and Sunna, drawing from the divine wellspring of wisdom. The Qurʾān invites us to forge a direct connection with Allah, fostering a relationship of trust and surrender. In the essence of ʾawliyāʾ, we find a call to embody divine unity, live by divine law, and engage in sincere worship, transcending the need for intermediaries.
In essence, the ʾawliyāʾ embody a spiritual kinship with Allah, achieved through devotion,
piety, and conscious living. As we explore and venerate this sacred concept, let us do so with
discernment and fidelity to the teachings of Islam, ensuring our spiritual pursuits remain
anchored in divine love and authenticity.
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