Arkān al-Īmān

Arkān al-Īmān, or the Pillars of Faith, constitute the fundamental beliefs in Islam; this comprehensive set of beliefs, consisting of six key elements, shapes a life’s spiritual, ethical, and social dimensions (Esposito, 2002, p. 3). Arkān al-Īmān encompasses belief in Allāh, His angels, His divine books, His Messengers, the Day of Judgment, and predestination (AlQadr). Imān, in Arabic, derives from the root verb ‘amana,’ which means to feel safe or secure. Therefore, the term īmān denotes an internal state of certainty and tranquillity derived from accepting Allāh and His commands (Lane, 1984, p. 2266). It is a profound emotional and intellectual conviction, forming a framework through which We perceive and interpret reality.

The first and foremost pillar of īmān is the belief in Allāh; His existence, His divine unity (tawhīd), His divine attributes, and that He is the Creator and Sustainer of the universe. These beliefs are enshrined in the Qurʾān, which repeatedly emphasises Allāh’s unity, for example,

قُلْ هُوَ ٱللَّهُ أَحَدٌ ١ ٱللَّهُ ٱلصَّمَدُ ٢ لَمْ يَلِدْ وَلَمْ يُولَدْ ٣ وَلَمْ يَكُن لَّهُۥ كُفُوًا أَحَدٌۢ ٤

“Say: He is Allāh, the One and Only; Allāh, the Eternal, Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten; And there is none like unto Him.” (Q. 112:1-4).

The second pillar involves the belief in angels (malā’ikah). According to Islamic theology, angels are created from light and are assigned various duties in the universe (Nasr, 2003, p. 77). The Qurʾān mentions several angels by name, such as Gabriel (Jibrīl) and Michael (Mīkāl), underscoring their significant roles in divine revelation and the functioning of the cosmos (Q. 2:97-98).

قُلْ مَن كَانَ عَدُوًّۭا لِّجِبْرِيلَ فَإِنَّهُۥ نَزَّلَهُۥ عَلَىٰ قَلْبِكَ بِإِذْنِ ٱللَّهِ مُصَدِّقًۭا لِّمَا بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ وَهُدًۭى وَبُشْرَىٰ لِلْمُؤْمِنِينَ ٩٧ مَن كَانَ عَدُوًّۭا لِّلَّهِ وَمَلَـٰٓئِكَتِهِۦ وَرُسُلِهِۦ وَجِبْرِيلَ وَمِيكَىٰلَ فَإِنَّ ٱللَّهَ عَدُوٌّۭ لِّلْكَـٰفِرِينَ ٩٨

“Say [Prophet], ‘If anyone is an enemy of Gabriel- who by God’s leave brought down the Quran to your heart confirming previous scriptures as a guide and good news for the faithful- if anyone is an enemy of God, His angels and His messengers, of Gabriel and Michael, then God is certainly the enemy of such disbelievers.’ ” (Q. 2:97-98).

The third pillar represents the belief in the divine books (kutub) that Allāh revealed as guidance to humanity. We believe in all scriptures sent down to the Prophets, including the Torah, the Psalms, the Gospel, and the Qurʾān. The Qurʾān, being the final revelation, confirms the truths of the previous scriptures and corrects any distortions that have occurred over time (Ali, 2003, p. 35).

وَأَنزَلْنَآ إِلَيْكَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ بِٱلْحَقِّ مُصَدِّقًۭا لِّمَا بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ مِنَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ وَمُهَيْمِنًا عَلَيْهِ ۖ فَٱحْكُم بَيْنَهُم بِمَآ أَنزَلَ ٱللَّهُ ۖ وَلَا تَتَّبِعْ أَهْوَآءَهُمْ عَمَّا جَآءَكَ مِنَ ٱلْحَقِّ ۚ لِكُلٍّۢ جَعَلْنَا مِنكُمْ شِرْعَةًۭ وَمِنْهَاجًۭا ۚ وَلَوْ شَآءَ ٱللَّهُ لَجَعَلَكُمْ أُمَّةًۭ وَٰحِدَةًۭ وَلَـٰكِن لِّيَبْلُوَكُمْ فِى مَآ ءَاتَىٰكُمْ ۖ فَٱسْتَبِقُوا۟ ٱلْخَيْرَٰتِ ۚ إِلَى ٱللَّهِ مَرْجِعُكُمْ جَمِيعًۭا فَيُنَبِّئُكُم بِمَا كُنتُمْ فِيهِ تَخْتَلِفُونَ ٤٨

“To you, We sent the Scripture in truth, confirming the scripture that came before it, and guarding it in safety” (Q. 5:48).

The fourth pillar revolves around belief in the messengers (rusul) of Allāh. We believe that Allāh conveyed His message to humanity through chosen individuals, known as Prophets, starting from Adam and culminating in Muhammad. These Prophets guided their communities and delivered Allāh’s message,

يَـٰٓأَهْلَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبِ قَدْ جَآءَكُمْ رَسُولُنَا يُبَيِّنُ لَكُمْ عَلَىٰ فَتْرَةٍۢ مِّنَ ٱلرُّسُلِ أَن تَقُولُوا۟ مَا جَآءَنَا مِنۢ بَشِيرٍۢ وَلَا نَذِيرٍۢ ۖ فَقَدْ جَآءَكُم بَشِيرٌۭ وَنَذِيرٌۭ ۗ وَٱللَّهُ عَلَىٰ كُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ قَدِيرٌۭ ١٩

“People of the Book, Our Messenger comes to you now, after a break in the sequence of messengers, to make things clear for you in case you should say, ‘No one has come to give us good news or to warn us.’ So someone has come to you, to give you good news and warn you: God has the power to do everything” (Q.5:19).

The fifth pillar is belief in the Day of Judgment (Yawm al-Qiyāmah). We believe in the certainty of life after death, the Day of Judgment, and that each person will be held accountable for their deeds. The belief in the Afterlife, including Heaven and Hell, is a core aspect of Islamic eschatology (Murata & Chittick, 1994, p. 106).

The final pillar is belief in Al-Qadr or divine predestination. We believe Allāh has full knowledge and control over everything that happens in the universe. They accept that everything, whether good or evil, is within the domain of Allāh’s will and part of His divine plan. This belief, however, does not negate human free will and responsibility for their actions (Leaman, 2006, p. 279).

The term īmān itself is derived from the Arabic root ‘amn’, which means ‘security’ or ‘safety’ (Lane, 1984, p. 2266). Within the Islamic context, īmān is a profound emotional and intellectual conviction that offers internal peace and certainty. This conviction is not static but subject to fluctuations based on deeds and intentions (Al-Bukhārī, 48). Hence, īmān is dynamic, reflecting the believer’s relationship with Allāh and their commitment to His guidance.

The term Allāh refers to the one true God in Islam. This term is exclusive to God and can’t be pluralised or genderised, underlining the transcendence of the Islamic concept of deity. It points to the Islamic principle of tawhīd, the unshakeable belief in the oneness of Allāh, which negates any possibility of polytheism, division, or association with Allāh,

وَإِلَـٰهُكُمْ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ ۖ لَّآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلرَّحْمَـٰنُ ٱلرَّحِيمُ ١٦٣

“Your God is the one God: there is no god except Him, the Lord of Mercy, the Giver of Mercy” (Q. 2:163).

The angels, or malā’ikah, are an integral part of Islamic cosmology. Created from light (nūr), they lack free will and are perpetually obedient to Allāh’s commands (Al-Bukhārī, Hadith 3328). The Qurʾān mentions several angels by name, the most famous being Gabriel (Jibrīl), entrusted with delivering divine revelations to the prophets (Q. 26:193).

The concept of divine revelation in Islam takes form in kutub, the books of Allāh. We believe in four primary books: the Torah (Tawrāt), the Psalms (Zabūr), the Gospel (Injīl), and the Qurʾān. Each book was revealed to its respective Prophet, with the Qurʾān, revealed to Prophet Muhammad, being the final and complete guidance for humanity (Q. 4:163).

Prophethood (nubuwwah) plays a central role in Islam. The Prophets (rusul) were morally upright individuals Allāh chose to deliver His message and guide their communities. The Qurʾān mentions 25 prophets by name, although it states that there were many more throughout history (Q. 40:78).

The Islamic eschatological framework revolves around the belief in the Day of Judgment (Yawm al-Qiyāmah). It includes the belief in the resurrection (baʿth), accountability for actions (hisāb), the bridge over Hell (sirāṭ), and the final destinations of Heaven (Jannah) and Hell (Jahannam) (Qutb, 2000, p. 171).

The final pillar of īmān is Al-Qadr, or predestination. This belief involves the understanding that Allāh has full knowledge of everything and that nothing occurs outside His will. It also encompasses the concept of divine decree (qadā’), the implementation of Allāh’s knowledge and will (El Fadl, 2014, p. 291).

Collectively, these terms and concepts provide a comprehensive understanding of Arkān alīmān. Each word carries profound implications for Muslim life, shaping their worldview, moral and ethical conduct, and their relationship with Allāh.

In the Islamic context, īmān is often translated as ‘faith’ or ‘belief’. However, this definition falls short of capturing the extensive depth of this term. It is instead an amalgamation of belief, conviction, and action, a composite whole that signifies complete submission and commitment to the principles of Islam (Al-Bukhārī, Hadith 48).

Derived from the Arabic root ‘amn’, īmān is intertwined with notions of security and tranquillity, as noted by Lane (1984, p. 2266). Consequently, it encapsulates an intrinsic sense of peace and safety engendered by an unshakeable conviction in Allāh and the tenets of Islam. This conviction emanates from the heart and is manifested through the tongue and the limbs. It is evident in a Muslim’s affirmation of faith (shahādah), prayers, and moral and ethical conduct.

Īmān is not a static entity; instead, it is dynamic and susceptible to fluctuation. This understanding of īmān is based on several hadiths, where Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said that īmān “increases with good deeds and decreases with evil deeds” (AlBukhārī, 48). The implications of īmān in the daily life of a Muslim are multifold. First and foremost, it underscores the relationship between a believer and Allāh. An individual with a strong īmān recognises Allāh’s omnipresence and omniscience, which nurtures a constant consciousness of Allāh, or taqwā. This consciousness motivates believers to adhere to Allāh’s commands and abstain from actions He has prohibited, as expressed in the Qurʾān:

يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ ٱتَّقُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ حَقَّ تُقَاتِهِۦ وَلَا تَمُوتُنَّ إِلَّا وَأَنتُم مُّسْلِمُونَ ١٠٢

“O you who believe! Fear Allāh as He should be feared” (Q. 3:102).

Moreover, īmān infuses life with purpose and direction. Īmān fosters qualities such as honesty, humility, patience, and empathy, as reflected in numerous Qurʾānic verses and hadiths. For example, Prophet Muhammad said, “None of you [truly] believes until he wishes for his brother what he wishes for himself” (Al-Bukhārī, 1997, Hadith 13). This reflects the emphasis on brotherhood, compassion, and selflessness in Islam.

The belief in Allāh’s omnipotence and divine decree, or qadā’ and qadar, inculcated by īmān, also plays a significant role in how a Muslim deals with challenges and hardships. It instils resilience and optimism, encouraging Us to perceive trials as tests from Allāh and opportunities for spiritual growth. The Qurʾān reminds believers:

وَلَنَبْلُوَنَّكُم بِشَىْءٍۢ مِّنَ ٱلْخَوْفِ وَٱلْجُوعِ وَنَقْصٍۢ مِّنَ ٱلْأَمْوَٰلِ وَٱلْأَنفُسِ وَٱلثَّمَرَٰتِ ۗ وَبَشِّرِ ٱلصَّـٰبِرِينَ ١٥٥

“And We will surely test you with something of fear and hunger and a loss of wealth and lives and fruits but give good tidings to the patient” (Q. 2:155).

Lastly, īmān underscores a sense of accountability and the belief in life after death, which fundamentally influence a believer’s perspective on life and death. It cultivates a consciousness of the transitory nature of life and the eternal reality of the hereafter, motivating Us to strive for righteousness and good deeds. The Qurʾān states:

وَمَا ٱلْحَيَوٰةُ ٱلدُّنْيَآ إِلَّا لَعِبٌۭ وَلَهْوٌۭ ۖ وَلَلدَّارُ ٱلْـَٔاخِرَةُ خَيْرٌۭ لِّلَّذِينَ يَتَّقُونَ ۗ أَفَلَا تَعْقِلُونَ ٣٢

“And the life of this world is nothing but play and amusement. But far better is the house in the hereafter for those who are Al-Muttaqūn (the pious). Will you not then understand?” (Q. 6:32).

Exploring īmān as a feeling presents an intriguing dimension of faith within the Islamic framework, particularly concerning emotional management. Īmān, which inherently involves the heart, or qalb, in Arabic, implicates many emotions and feelings (M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, 2005, p. 152).

As we traverse through īmān’s complexities, it becomes evident that īmān is more than a cognitive belief; it is also a profound emotional experience (Al-Ghazālī, 2004, p. 45). This emotional dimension is implied in the Qurʾān, in verses like:

ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ وَتَطْمَئِنُّ قُلُوبُهُم بِذِكْرِ ٱللَّهِ ۗ أَلَا بِذِكْرِ ٱللَّهِ تَطْمَئِنُّ ٱلْقُلُوبُ ٢٨

“those who believe, and whose hearts find satisfaction in the remembrance of Allāh: for without doubt in the remembrance of Allāh do hearts find satisfaction” (Q. 13:28).

This satisfaction and tranquillity that stem from īmān delineate its emotional aspect. While deeply personal, the emotional experience of īmān is intricately tied to the communal experience of Us. Collective rituals, such as the five daily prayers or the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, cultivate shared emotions that strengthen communal bonds and solidarity among believers (Hoffman, 2007, p. 123). This sense of belonging and unity nourishes emotional well-being, offering a potent means for emotional management.

One significant aspect of emotional management facilitated by īmān is resilience in the face of adversity. A strong īmān engenders emotional strength and resilience by cultivating a positive outlook, patience (ṣabr), and reliance (tawakkul) on Allāh (Al-Qurṭubī, 2006, Vol. 12, p. 255). The Qurʾān says:

قُل لَّن يُصِيبَنَآ إِلَّا مَا كَتَبَ ٱللَّهُ لَنَا هُوَ مَوْلَىٰنَا ۚ وَعَلَى ٱللَّهِ فَلْيَتَوَكَّلِ ٱلْمُؤْمِنُونَ ٥١

“Say, ‘Nothing will happen to us except what Allāh has decreed for us: He is our protector’; and upon Allāh let the believers rely” (Q. 9:51). This verse encapsulates the decisive role of īmān in emotional management, providing a sense of control and stability amid life’s uncertainties.

Moreover, īmān is critical in managing emotions such as fear and anxiety. The belief in Allāh’s omnipotence and mercy, and the belief in life after death, significantly alter a believer’s perspective on life’s trials and tribulations. For instance, the Qurʾān says:

“Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allāh. Unquestionably, by the remembrance of Allāh hearts are assured” (13:28).

The assurance provided by the remembrance of Allāh (dhikr) indicates how īmān can help manage feelings of fear and anxiety, replacing them with a sense of peace and serenity. Furthermore, īmān fosters positive emotions such as gratitude (shukr) and contentment (riḍā). Gratitude in Islam is not merely an emotional response but also a virtue and an act of worship. The Qurʾān mentions:

وَإِذْ تَأَذَّنَ رَبُّكُمْ لَئِن شَكَرْتُمْ لَأَزِيدَنَّكُمْ ۖ وَلَئِن كَفَرْتُمْ إِنَّ عَذَابِى لَشَدِيدٌۭ ٧

“If you are grateful, I will surely increase you [in favour]” (14:7).

This promotes a positive attitude and emotional well-being. Similarly, contentment, reflected in the Qurʾān as

مَآ أَصَابَ مِن مُّصِيبَةٍ إِلَّا بِإِذْنِ ٱللَّهِ ۗ وَمَن يُؤْمِنۢ بِٱللَّهِ يَهْدِ قَلْبَهُۥ ۚ وَٱللَّهُ بِكُلِّ شَىْءٍ عَلِيمٌۭ ١١

“No disaster strikes except by permission of Allāh. And whoever believes in Allāh – He will guide his heart. And Allāh knows of all things” (64:11),

This is also a form of emotional management, promoting acceptance and peace with Allāh’s decree. Finally, the emotion of hope (raja’) in Allāh’s mercy and forgiveness is another crucial element of īmān that aids emotional management. It helps individuals cope with guilt or despair due to sins or mistakes, encouraging repentance and positive change. As stated in the Qurʾān:

۞ قُلْ يَـٰعِبَادِىَ ٱلَّذِينَ أَسْرَفُوا۟ عَلَىٰٓ أَنفُسِهِمْ لَا تَقْنَطُوا۟ مِن رَّحْمَةِ ٱللَّهِ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَغْفِرُ ٱلذُّنُوبَ جَمِيعًا ۚ إِنَّهُۥ هُوَ ٱلْغَفُورُ ٱلرَّحِيمُ ٥٣

“Say, ‘O My servants who have transgressed against themselves [by sinning], do not despair of the mercy of Allāh. Indeed, Allāh forgives all sins. Indeed, it is He who is the Forgiving, the Merciful'” (39:53).

The exploration of īmān necessitates concurrently examining its counterpoints, kufr and nifāq, to comprehend its Islamic significance fully. Kufr, often translated as disbelief or infidelity, and nifāq, usually interpreted as hypocrisy, are opposed to īmān in the Islamic paradigm (Asad, 1980, p. 43).

The term kufr originates from the Arabic root k-f-r, which implies to ‘cover’ or ‘conceal’. In the religious context, it refers to the denial or rejection of the fundamental tenets of Islam, either through disbelief or ungratefulness towards Allāh (Ibn Manẓūr, 2002, Vol. 2, p. 771). As the Qurʾān stipulates:

إِنَّ ٱلَّذِينَ يَكْفُرُونَ بِٱللَّهِ وَرُسُلِهِۦ وَيُرِيدُونَ أَن يُفَرِّقُوا۟ بَيْنَ ٱللَّهِ وَرُسُلِهِۦ وَيَقُولُونَ نُؤْمِنُ بِبَعْضٍۢ وَنَكْفُرُ بِبَعْضٍۢ وَيُرِيدُونَ أَن يَتَّخِذُوا۟ بَيْنَ ذَٰلِكَ سَبِيلًا ١٥٠ أُو۟لَـٰٓئِكَ هُمُ ٱلْكَـٰفِرُونَ حَقًّۭا ۚ وَأَعْتَدْنَا لِلْكَـٰفِرِينَ عَذَابًۭا مُّهِينًۭا ١٥١

“Verily, those who disbelieve in Allāh and His Messengers and wish to distinguish between Allāh and His Messengers saying, ‘We believe in some but reject others,’ and wish to adopt a way in between. They are in truth disbelievers” (4:150-151).

This verse highlights the absolute nature of kufr—it involves a total rejection of the monotheistic premise upon which īmān rests. However, kufr should not be narrowly perceived as intellectual denial alone; it also involves a rejection through actions and attitudes. The Qurʾān cautions

يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوٓا۟ ءَامِنُوا۟ بِٱللَّهِ وَرَسُولِهِۦ وَٱلْكِتَـٰبِ ٱلَّذِى نَزَّلَ عَلَىٰ رَسُولِهِۦ وَٱلْكِتَـٰبِ ٱلَّذِىٓ أَنزَلَ مِن قَبْلُ ۚ وَمَن يَكْفُرْ بِٱللَّهِ وَمَلَـٰٓئِكَتِهِۦ وَكُتُبِهِۦ وَرُسُلِهِۦ وَٱلْيَوْمِ ٱلْـَٔاخِرِ فَقَدْ ضَلَّ ضَلَـٰلًۢا بَعِيدًا ١٣٦

“And whoever denies Allāh, His angels, His Books, His Messengers, and the Day of Resurrection, then indeed he has strayed far away” (4:136).

This verse suggests that kufr extends beyond belief to encompass actions, such as neglecting religious duties and dismissing ethical guidelines established by Allāh and His Messengers. Nifāq, on the other hand, denotes an insincere profession of faith, where outward expressions of belief mask an inner reality of disbelief. The Qurʾān warns,

وَمِنَ ٱلنَّاسِ مَن يَقُولُ ءَامَنَّا بِٱللَّهِ وَبِٱلْيَوْمِ ٱلْـَٔاخِرِ وَمَا هُم بِمُؤْمِنِينَ ٨

“And of mankind, there are some who say: ‘We believe in Allāh and the Last Day’ while they believe not” (2:8). This verse delineates the core of nifāq—a dichotomy between inner and outer states of belief.

Nifāq is further classified into two types: nifāq in belief and nifāq in action (Ibn Kathīr, 2003, Vol. 2, p. 37). Nifāq in belief refers to internal disbelief disguised by an outward profession of faith. In contrast, nifāq in action signifies a discrepancy between a believer’s declared beliefs and actions, although they might genuinely believe in the heart. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) specified signs of hypocrisy: lying when speaking, breaking promises, betraying trust, using foul language, and showing hostility in disputes (Bukhārī, 6095).

The implications of kufr and nifāq within Islamic theology are profound. They oppose īmān and are considered grave sins with severe consequences in the hereafter (Esack, 2002, p. 109). The Qurʾān states,

إِنَّ ٱلْمُنَـٰفِقِينَ فِى ٱلدَّرْكِ ٱلْأَسْفَلِ مِنَ ٱلنَّارِ وَلَن تَجِدَ لَهُمْ نَصِيرًا ١٤٥

“Verily, the hypocrites will be in the lowest depth (grade) of the Fire; no helper will you find for them” (Q. 4:145).

This verse indicates the gravity of kufr and nifāq, demonstrating their severe implications for an individual’s spiritual standing and Afterlife. Nevertheless, it is crucial to remember that the judgement of kufr and nifāq ultimately rests with Allāh alone. As the Qurʾān explains,

مَّا كَانَ ٱللَّهُ لِيَذَرَ ٱلْمُؤْمِنِينَ عَلَىٰ مَآ أَنتُمْ عَلَيْهِ حَتَّىٰ يَمِيزَ ٱلْخَبِيثَ مِنَ ٱلطَّيِّبِ ۗ وَمَا كَانَ ٱللَّهُ لِيُطْلِعَكُمْ عَلَى ٱلْغَيْبِ وَلَـٰكِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَجْتَبِى مِن رُّسُلِهِۦ مَن يَشَآءُ ۖ فَـَٔامِنُوا۟ بِٱللَّهِ وَرُسُلِهِۦ ۚ وَإِن تُؤْمِنُوا۟ وَتَتَّقُوا۟ فَلَكُمْ أَجْرٌ عَظِيمٌۭ ١٧٩

“Allāh will not leave the believers in the state in which you are now until He distinguishes the wicked from the good” (Q. 3:179).

This verse underscores the divine prerogative in discerning the actual state of an individual’s īmān, cautioning against hasty judgements or accusations of disbelief or hypocrisy.

Allāh

In seeking to understand Allāh, the environment, or the cosmos, is a potent signifier. Islamic thought places significant emphasis on the observable world as a mirror of divine attributes and a reflection of the cosmic order established by Allāh (Sardar, 2010, p. 57). This perspective informs an environmental ethic rooted in the observation, appreciation, and responsible stewardship of the natural world, all of which act as avenues to enhance one’s understanding of Allāh.

The Qurʾān frequently refers to the cosmos as āyāt, or signs, which are symbols of Allāh’s presence and evidence of His creative power. As the Qurʾān attests:

إِنَّ فِى خَلْقِ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ وَٱخْتِلَـٰفِ ٱلَّيْلِ وَٱلنَّهَارِ وَٱلْفُلْكِ ٱلَّتِى تَجْرِى فِى ٱلْبَحْرِ بِمَا يَنفَعُ ٱلنَّاسَ وَمَآ أَنزَلَ ٱللَّهُ مِنَ ٱلسَّمَآءِ مِن مَّآءٍۢ فَأَحْيَا بِهِ ٱلْأَرْضَ بَعْدَ مَوْتِهَا وَبَثَّ فِيهَا مِن كُلِّ دَآبَّةٍۢ وَتَصْرِيفِ ٱلرِّيَـٰحِ وَٱلسَّحَابِ ٱلْمُسَخَّرِ بَيْنَ ٱلسَّمَآءِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ لَـَٔايَـٰتٍۢ لِّقَوْمٍۢ يَعْقِلُونَ ١٦٤

“Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of the night and the day, and the ships which sail through the sea with that which is of use to mankind, and the water which Allāh sends down from the sky and makes the earth alive therewith after its death, and the animals of all kinds that He has scattered therein, and in the change of the winds and the clouds which they trail like their slaves between the sky and the earth, are indeed āyāt for people of understanding” (Q. 2:164).

This verse signifies the cosmos as an open book, with each facet of creation serving as a chapter in the grand narrative of divine creativity. By contemplating the intricate designs and complex interactions within the cosmos, believers can appreciate the attributes of Allāh, such as His knowledge (‘ilm), wisdom (ḥikmah), and power (qudrah). The celestial bodies, for example, reflect the divine attribute of orderliness, or taḍbīr. The Qurʾān says:

وَهُوَ ٱلَّذِى خَلَقَ ٱلَّيْلَ وَٱلنَّهَارَ وَٱلشَّمْسَ وَٱلْقَمَرَ ۖ كُلٌّۭ فِى فَلَكٍۢ يَسْبَحُونَ ٣٣

“It is He Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon. They swim along, each in orbit” (Q. 21:33).

In this verse, the precise orbits of celestial bodies epitomise the cosmic order set by Allāh. Similarly, the environmental harmony observed in the earth’s ecosystems reflects the attribute of balance (miẓān). As noted in the Qurʾān:

وَٱلْأَرْضَ مَدَدْنَـٰهَا وَأَلْقَيْنَا فِيهَا رَوَٰسِىَ وَأَنۢبَتْنَا فِيهَا مِن كُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ مَّوْزُونٍۢ ١٩

“And the earth We have spread out, and have placed therein firm mountains, and caused to grow therein all kinds of things in due proportion” (Q. 15:19).

The careful proportion and balance exhibited in the environment, from the biodiversity to the precise cycling of nutrients, signify Allāh’s meticulous planning and precise execution. In addition to acknowledging these divine attributes, the cosmos can further illuminate our understanding of the divine will. This is particularly evident in the principle of change (taghayyur), which underpins the dynamics of the universe and acts as a constant reminder of the transience of worldly life and the enduring nature of the divine. As the Qurʾān states:

مَا عِندَكُمْ يَنفَدُ ۖ وَمَا عِندَ ٱللَّهِ بَاقٍۢ ۗ وَلَنَجْزِيَنَّ ٱلَّذِينَ صَبَرُوٓا۟ أَجْرَهُم بِأَحْسَنِ مَا كَانُوا۟ يَعْمَلُونَ ٩٦

“Whatever you have will end, but what Allāh has is lasting. And We will surely give those who were patient their reward according to the best of what they used to do” (Q. 16:96).

This verse indicates that understanding the impermanence inherent in the cosmos can lead to a deeper comprehension of the eternal nature of Allāh and the emphasis on virtuous deeds. Moreover, by observing the natural world, individuals are prompted towards gratitude (shukr) and mindfulness (taqwā) of Allāh. The bounties derived from the environment, such as sustenance and life-giving processes, invite recognition of Allāh’s generosity and, consequently, the responsibility of humans as stewards (khalāʾif) on earth (Nasr, 1996, p. 31). Therefore, understanding Allāh through the cosmos also includes understanding the human role within the cosmic order.

Understanding Allāh through His self-description forms a vital part of Islamic thephilosophical tradition. It is principally achieved by reflecting upon the “Beautiful Names” (al-Asmāʾ al-Ḥusnā), as enumerated in the Qurʾān, and various divine attributes (ṣifāt) explicated within Islamic texts. It also extends to exploring metaphysical concepts that Allāh employs to describe Himself and the relationships He defines with His creation. This approach to understanding Allāh is rooted in a nuanced study of the text, an inquisitive mind, and a reflective heart.

The Qurʾān identifies 99 “Beautiful Names” of Allāh, each expressing a distinctive attribute of the divine. This concept is based on the Qurʾānic verse:

وَلِلَّهِ ٱلْأَسْمَآءُ ٱلْحُسْنَىٰ فَٱدْعُوهُ بِهَا ۖ وَذَرُوا۟ ٱلَّذِينَ يُلْحِدُونَ فِىٓ أَسْمَـٰٓئِهِۦ ۚ سَيُجْزَوْنَ مَا كَانُوا۟ يَعْمَلُونَ ١٨٠

“And to Allāh belong the best names, so invoke Him by them” (Q. 7:180).

These names, which include Al-Raḥmān (the Most Gracious), Al-ʿAlīm (the All-Knowing), and Al-Qayyūm (the Self-Sustaining), provide an extensive and profound framework for understanding the multifaceted nature of Allāh (Murata & Chittick, 1994, p. 178). Through contemplation of these names, believers can appreciate the breadth and depth of Allāh’s characteristics, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of the divine. However, it is essential to clarify that these names and attributes are not separate entities or aspects of Allāh nor imply a multiplicity in the divine essence. Instead, they are various ways Allāh has chosen to reveal His single, indivisible essence (tawḥīd). As Izutsu (2002) explains, these names are “theophanies” or self-manifestations of the divine essence, helping believers perceive the richness of Allāh’s nature without compromising monotheism (p. 85).

In addition to the Beautiful Names, Allāh describes Himself through metaphysical concepts. For instance, the concept of Allāh as the “First” (Al-ʾAwwal) and the “Last” (Al-ʾĀkhir) illustrates His transcendence beyond time and space, His eternality, and His supremacy over all creation (Q. 57:3). Meanwhile, Allāh’s description of Himself as “the Outward” (Al-Ẓāhir) and “the Inward” (Al-Bāṭin) encapsulates His omnipresence and immanence, and the fact that He is both manifest in every facet of creation and beyond human comprehension (Q. 57:3). Thus, these metaphysical concepts contribute significantly to the human understanding of the divine.

Furthermore, Allāh’s descriptions of His relationships with His creation provide another lens for understanding Him. Allāh is described as a guide (al-Hādī), a friend (al-Walī), a helper (alNaṣīr), a provider (al-Razzāq), and a judge (al-Ḥakam), among other roles (Esposito, 2011, p. 27). These roles illustrate the multifaceted nature of Allāh’s engagement with creation, reinforcing His benevolence, mercy, and justice. Yet, the Qurʾān also clearly states that:

فَاطِرُ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ ۚ جَعَلَ لَكُم مِّنْ أَنفُسِكُمْ أَزْوَٰجًۭا وَمِنَ ٱلْأَنْعَـٰمِ أَزْوَٰجًۭا ۖ يَذْرَؤُكُمْ فِيهِ ۚ لَيْسَ كَمِثْلِهِۦ شَىْءٌۭ ۖ وَهُوَ ٱلسَّمِيعُ ٱلْبَصِيرُ ١١

“There is nothing like unto Him” (Q. 42:11), underlining the absolute transcendence of Allāh. This verse clarifies that believers can understand aspects of the divine through His self-description but cannot fully comprehend His essence. The paradox of knowing Allāh through His self-description while recognising the inability to comprehend Him fully fosters a profound sense of humility and awe among believers.

Understanding Allāh’s actions is a deeply intricate task within the study of Islamic theology, often known as aqīdah. In both the Qurʾān and Hadīth literature, Allāh’s actions are delineated, including His creation, provision, guidance, judgement, mercy, and punishment. These actions highlight Allāh’s role as the Sustainer, Guide, and Judge of the universe, as well as His encompassing mercy and justice.

Firstly, Allāh’s act of creation is central to Islamic belief. The Qurʾān repeatedly emphasises that Allāh is the Creator of everything in existence:

ٱللَّهُ خَـٰلِقُ كُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ ۖ وَهُوَ عَلَىٰ كُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ وَكِيلٌۭ ٦٢

“Allāh is the Creator of all things, and He is, over all things, Disposer of affairs” (Q. 39:62). His creative act is not only understood as an initial act of bringing the universe into existence, but also a continuous process whereby He sustains and governs all creation. In the act of creation, We see evidence of Allāh’s wisdom, knowledge, and power (Nasr, 1993, p. 77).

Allāh’s providence, or His act of providing for His creation, is another crucial facet of understanding His actions. The Qurʾān states,

۞ وَمَا مِن دَآبَّةٍۢ فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ إِلَّا عَلَى ٱللَّهِ رِزْقُهَا وَيَعْلَمُ مُسْتَقَرَّهَا وَمُسْتَوْدَعَهَا ۚ كُلٌّۭ فِى كِتَـٰبٍۢ مُّبِينٍۢ ٦

“And there is no creature on earth but that upon Allāh is its provision” (Q. 11:6). This attribute underscores Allāh’s continuous care and concern for all creatures, as well as His knowledge of their needs. According to Leaman (2008), understanding Allāh’s providence fosters gratitude and dependence on Allāh among believers (p. 121).

In addition, Allāh’s guidance is a recurrent theme in the Qurʾān. It is He who guides individuals to the straight path (al-Ṣirāṭ al-Mustaqīm), facilitating their spiritual development and moral rectitude.

إِنَّكَ لَا تَهْدِى مَنْ أَحْبَبْتَ وَلَـٰكِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَهْدِى مَن يَشَآءُ ۚ وَهُوَ أَعْلَمُ بِٱلْمُهْتَدِينَ ٥٦

“Indeed, you (O Muhammad) guide not whom you like, but Allāh guides whom He wills. And He knows best those who are the guided” (Q. 28:56).

Allāh’s guidance, or hidāyah, is perceived as a divine gift, prompting individuals towards faith (īmān) and good deeds (ʿamal ṣāliḥ) (Rahman, 2009, p. 64). Furthermore, Allāh, as the Judge, who rewards and punishes, is pivotal in Islamic belief. Allāh says,

وَنَضَعُ ٱلْمَوَٰزِينَ ٱلْقِسْطَ لِيَوْمِ ٱلْقِيَـٰمَةِ فَلَا تُظْلَمُ نَفْسٌۭ شَيْـًۭٔا ۖ وَإِن كَانَ مِثْقَالَ حَبَّةٍۢ مِّنْ خَرْدَلٍ أَتَيْنَا بِهَا ۗ وَكَفَىٰ بِنَا حَـٰسِبِينَ ٤٧

“And We shall set up balances of justice on the Day of Resurrection, then none will be dealt with unjustly in anything” (Q. 21:47).

This asserts that Allāh will evaluate every individual’s action, dispensing justice with perfect fairness. It imbues human actions with profound moral significance and inculcates a sense of personal accountability (Winter, 2010, p. 214). However, it is also crucial to understand Allāh’s mercy (raḥmah) and forgiveness (ghufrān) in balance with His justice. The Qurʾān opens with the words,

“In the name of Allāh, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.” Indeed, Allāh describes Himself as “Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful” (Q. 39:53),

Signalling His inclination towards forgiveness and mercy. Understanding these divine actions enables believers to foster hope and aspire for Allāh’s mercy while being cognisant of His justice. While We believe that every event in the universe is a result of Allāh’s will (mashīʾah), Islamic scholars stress the importance of understanding Allāh’s actions within the framework of human free will. This paradoxical interplay between divine will and human freedom is a subject of ongoing theological discourse within Islam (Leaman, 2008, p. 104).

The Names of Allāh, often known as al-asmā’ al-ḥusnā or “the Most Beautiful Names,” hold a profound significance in Islamic theology. Allāh refers to these names in the Qurʾān as a means for human beings to understand His divine essence and attributes,

“And (all) the Most Beautiful Names belong to Allāh, so call on Him by them” (Q. 7:180).

Among these names, Allāh, alternately transcribed as El-Lah in some sources, holds a unique status and warrants focused attention. The name “Allāh” is derived from the Arabic word “ilāh,” meaning deity or God. In its definite form, al-ilāh or “the God” signifies the supreme deity deserving of all worship. Over time, the linguistic use evolved, and the term was contracted to Allāh, designating the monotheistic God of Islam (Armstrong, 1993, p. 39).

The name Allāh comprises the essence of tawḥīd (Islamic monotheism), underscoring the belief in one God who is singular, unique, and unlike His creation. The Qurʾān elucidates this concept in the chapter al-Ikhlāṣ (The Sincerity),

“Say: He is Allāh, the One and Only; Allāh, the Eternal, Absolute; He begets not, nor was He begotten; And there is none like unto Him” (Q. 112:1-4).

This name is not only the most frequently used in the Qurʾān but also forms the basis of the Islamic confession of faith (shahādah), “There is no deity worthy of worship except Allāh” (Lings, 2005, p. 27). Hence, the name Allāh holds central importance in the life of a Muslim, used in daily rituals, prayers, and supplications.

An essential aspect of understanding the name Allāh lies in the knowledge that it encompasses all the divine attributes without exclusion. It is comprehensive, capturing all other names and qualities of God (Gardet, 2009, p. 54). When believers invoke Allāh, they indirectly call upon all His attributes, making it the most potent of all His names.

However, it is necessary to note that while the name Allāh provides a framework for understanding divine qualities, it does not encompass the entirety of God’s ineffable essence. As al-Ghazālī (2004) elucidates, the names of Allāh only provide a means for human beings to approach the divine mystery without ever fully comprehending it (p. 81).

The theological implications of the name Allāh are numerous. It necessitates the believer’s complete surrender and submission, recognising Allāh as the sole authority in all spheres of life. It also cultivates an attitude of humble adoration and veneration towards Allāh, acknowledging His omnipotence and omniscience.

Moreover, the name Allāh also fosters spiritual and ethical transformation. As Murata & Chittick (1994) suggest, knowing Allāh’s names encourages individuals to reflect these divine attributes in their behaviour, inspiring them to cultivate traits such as mercy (raḥmah), justice (‘adl), and kindness (iḥsān) (p. 77).

The existence of God has been a topic of discourse among theologians, philosophers, and scientists across cultures and epochs. Islamic tradition has formulated several theological arguments to substantiate the existence of God, rooted in the Qurʾān, Hadith, and intellectual reasoning. These arguments, in essence, seek to affirm the Qurʾānic verse,

إِنَّ فِى خَلْقِ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ وَٱخْتِلَـٰفِ ٱلَّيْلِ وَٱلنَّهَارِ لَـَٔايَـٰتٍۢ لِّأُو۟لِى ٱلْأَلْبَـٰبِ ١٩٠

“Indeed, in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the night and the day are signs for those of understanding” (Q. 3:190).

The Argument from Design, or Teleological Argument, is one such contention used to establish the existence of God. It posits that the order, complexity, and purpose observed in the universe indicate the hand of an intelligent designer. The Qurʾān often directs the reader’s attention to the precision and intricacy of natural phenomena as indicators of a purposeful Creator,

وَفِى ٱلْأَرْضِ قِطَعٌۭ مُّتَجَـٰوِرَٰتٌۭ وَجَنَّـٰتٌۭ مِّنْ أَعْنَـٰبٍۢ وَزَرْعٌۭ وَنَخِيلٌۭ صِنْوَانٌۭ وَغَيْرُ صِنْوَانٍۢ يُسْقَىٰ بِمَآءٍۢ وَٰحِدٍۢ وَنُفَضِّلُ بَعْضَهَا عَلَىٰ بَعْضٍۢ فِى ٱلْأُكُلِ ۚ إِنَّ فِى ذَٰلِكَ لَـَٔايَـٰتٍۢ لِّقَوْمٍۢ يَعْقِلُونَ ٤

“And within the land are neighbouring plots and gardens of grapevines and crops and palm trees, [growing] several from a root or otherwise, watered with one water; but We make some of them exceed others in [quality of] fruit. Indeed, in that are signs for a people who reason” (Q. 13:4).

This argument resonates with the cosmological observations made by contemporary scientists, adding to its relevance (Barbour, 1990). The Cosmological Argument, or the Argument from First Cause, is another persuasive argument positing that everything has a cause, leading back to an uncaused First Cause or a Necessary Being, identified as God. The Qurʾān substantiates this argument, asserting God as the Originator of the heavens and the earth, “He is the Originator of the heavens and the earth…” (Q. 6:101). Al-Ghazālī, the influential Islamic scholar, further developed this argument, arguing that the contingent nature of the universe necessitates a Necessary Being (Frank, 2000).

The Moral Argument, albeit less utilised in traditional Islamic discourse, has gained attention in contemporary Islamic philosophy. It contends that moral values and duties imply a moral lawgiver, identified as God. While the Qurʾān does not present a direct moral argument for God’s existence, it emphasises the role of God as the ultimate judge and the source of moral guidance,

قُلْ إِنَّنِى هَدَىٰنِى رَبِّىٓ إِلَىٰ صِرَٰطٍۢ مُّسْتَقِيمٍۢ دِينًۭا قِيَمًۭا مِّلَّةَ إِبْرَٰهِيمَ حَنِيفًۭا ۚ وَمَا كَانَ مِنَ ٱلْمُشْرِكِينَ ١٦١

“Say, ‘Indeed, my Lord has guided me to a straight path – a correct religion – the way of Abraham, inclining toward truth. And he was not among those who associated others with Allah'” (Q. 6:161).

Contemporary Muslim philosophers such as Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Tariq Ramadan have further explored this argument (Nasr, 2001; Ramadan, 2004). Although not explicitly formulated in the classical Islamic tradition, the Argument from Consciousness has recently gained attention. It holds that the existence of consciousness and self-awareness in human beings implies a conscious Creator. This argument aligns with the Qurʾānic emphasis on the human ability for self-reflection and reasoning as signs of divine creation,

وَٱللَّهُ أَخْرَجَكُم مِّنۢ بُطُونِ أُمَّهَـٰتِكُمْ لَا تَعْلَمُونَ شَيْـًۭٔا وَجَعَلَ لَكُمُ ٱلسَّمْعَ وَٱلْأَبْصَـٰرَ وَٱلْأَفْـِٔدَةَ ۙ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَشْكُرُونَ ٧٨

“And He gave you hearing and vision and hearts; little are you grateful” (Q. 16:78).

Contemporary Islamic scholars such as Hamza Yusuf have explored this argument more deeply (Yusuf, 2015). Within the rich heritage of Islamic thought, philosophical and rational arguments serve as instrumental tools to reconcile faith and reason and elucidate Islam’s spiritual and moral tenets. The philosophers and scholars of Islam have developed an array of arguments to establish God’s existence and address intricate matters of theology, morality, metaphysics, and cosmology.

The kalam cosmological argument, which emerged within Islamic scholastic theology (kalam), is a crucial rational argument. The Muslim philosopher and theologian, Al-Ghazālī famously formulated this argument, contending that the universe, due to its contingent and finite nature, must have a cause, identified as God, the Necessary Being (Frank, 2000). AlGhazālī’s argument, particularly his emphasis on the temporal origination of the universe, has remained influential within Islamic thought and significantly impacted Western philosophical discourse.

Another central rational argument within Islamic philosophy is the argument from design or teleological argument. This argument, elucidated by Islamic scholars like Ibn Rushd and Ibn Sina, posits that the intricate design and order observed in the universe indicate a designer, i.e., God. In his commentaries on Aristotle’s works, Ibn Rushd argued that the regularities and laws of nature evince an intelligent principle or cause (Leaman, 1988). Simultaneously, Ibn Sina, in his metaphysical treatise ‘The Cure,’ stated that the universe’s harmony and unity manifest divine wisdom (Nasr & Leaman, 1996).

Moreover, the moral argument is another significant rational contention within the Islamic tradition. Although this argument is less prominent within classical Islamic philosophy, it has gained increasing attention in contemporary Islamic thought. The moral argument holds that the existence of moral values and duties within the world necessitates a moral lawgiver, identified as God. Contemporary Islamic scholars such as Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Tariq Ramadan have elaborated upon this argument, asserting that the universal moral principles found within Islam indicate a divine source (Nasr, 2001; Ramadan, 2004).

Similarly, although not a traditional argument within the Islamic discourse, the argument from consciousness has recently gained traction among Muslim scholars. This argument suggests that human consciousness and self-awareness presuppose a conscious Creator. This line of reasoning resonates with the Qurʾānic emphasis on human cognition and intellect as divine gifts and signs of God’s existence (Yusuf, 2015).

Furthermore, the argument from religious experience has found extensive mention in the works of Sufi scholars like Rumi and Ibn Arabi. They emphasised individuals’ spiritual experiences as personal affirmations of God’s existence (Chittick, 1989). While subjective and contingent on personal experience, this argument still holds sway among many within the Islamic tradition.

Angels

Angels, known as malāʾikah in Arabic, constitute a central aspect of Islamic belief. The nature, roles, and ranks of angels are diverse and complex, explored extensively within the Islamic tradition’s corpus (Renard, 2008). Angels are defined as celestial beings created by Allāh from nūr (light), devoid of physical desires, and incapable of sinning (Al-Bukhari, 3232). They are ubiquitous and serve as intermediaries between Allāh and His creation, performing many roles, including recording deeds, bestowing blessings, and delivering divine messages (Q. 66:6; 13:11).

Jibrīl, arguably the most recognised angel within the Islamic tradition, is often equated with the Holy Spirit (Al-Rūḥ al-Qudus) (Q. 16:102). As Allāh’s chief Messenger, Jibrīl is responsible for conveying divine revelations to the prophets, most notably delivering the Qurʾān to Prophet Muhammad (Al-Bukhari, 3). He is also associated with divine assistance in moments of crisis and trials (Q. 2:97-98). Jibrīl’s interactions with Prophet Muhammad were often transformative experiences, shaping the Prophet’s understanding and exposition of the divine message (Brown, 2009).

Mīkāl, another high-ranking angel, is primarily associated with providence, controlling the forces of nature, including rainfall and vegetation (Q. 2:98). Islamic tradition depicts Mīkāl as a compassionate angel, often weeping over the sight of hellfire and the fate of sinners, which signifies his deep concern for human well-being (Al-Suyūṭī, 2003).

Isrāfīl, albeit not directly mentioned in the Qurʾān, is central within the Islamic eschatological narrative. Isrāfīl is typically depicted holding a trumpet, which he will blow twice to mark the end of time and the Day of Judgement (Al-Bukhari, 4160). He is often associated with the resurrection motif, symbolising the cyclical nature of existence and the inescapable reality of divine justice (Esposito, 2004).

Lastly, ʿIzrā’īl, the angel of death, is responsible for taking the souls of individuals at their appointed time,

۞ قُلْ يَتَوَفَّىٰكُم مَّلَكُ ٱلْمَوْتِ ٱلَّذِى وُكِّلَ بِكُمْ ثُمَّ إِلَىٰ رَبِّكُمْ تُرْجَعُونَ ١١

Say, ‘The Angel of Death put in charge of you will reclaim you, and then you will be brought back to your Lord’ (Q. 32:11).

Despite his somewhat ominous role, ʿIzrā’īl is portrayed as merely fulfilling divine commands, reaffirming the inevitability of death and the transient nature of worldly existence (Murata & Chittick, 2006).

The ranks of angels in Islam are hierarchical, with archangels such as Jibrīl, Mīkāl, Isrāfīl, and ʿIzrā’īl holding prominent positions. However, it’s crucial to note that rank does not denote favour but indicates a hierarchy of function and responsibility. In their different roles and capacities, the angels work in harmony to maintain the equilibrium of existence, reflecting the unity and interconnectedness of God’s creation (Renard, 2008).

The investigation into the identities of Beelzebul and Azazel demands a multidisciplinary approach, drawing from biblical, apocryphal, and Islamic sources, archaeological evidence, and linguistic analysis. By investigating these figures’ origins, natures, and roles, we might better understand their portrayal in various religious traditions and their broader cultural significance.

Beelzebul, also known as Beelzebub, is a figure in the New Testament of the Christian Bible, particularly in the synoptic gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke (Twelftree, 2007). His name is derived from the Canaanite god Baal Zebub, often translated as ‘Lord of the Flies,’ a deity worshipped in the Philistine city of Ekron (2 Kings 1:2-3, NRSV). However, in the synoptic gospels, Beelzebul is portrayed as a powerful demon, if not Satan himself. Some interpretations suggest that the name Beelzebul, meaning ‘Lord of the House’ in Hebrew, might signify the demon’s authority over other evil spirits (Horsley, 2012).

On the other hand, Azazel is a figure mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in Leviticus 16, in the context of the Yom Kippur ritual. The high priest was instructed to send a goat, known as the ‘scapegoat,’ into the wilderness, symbolically carrying the community’s sins to Azazel (Milgrom, 2004). While early interpretations considered Azazel a desolate place or a symbol of complete removal, later Jewish, Christian, and occult traditions often portrayed Azazel as a demonic or fallen angelic entity. Notably, the Book of Enoch, a Jewish pseudepigraphical work, portrays Azazel as a fallen Watcher, a leader among angels who sinned by teaching humanity forbidden knowledge and producing offspring with human women (1 Enoch 8:1-2; 9:6; 10:4-6).

In Islamic tradition, neither Beelzebul nor Azazel appears by these names. However, some scholars suggest that Iblīs, the Qurʾānic figure who refuses Allāh’s command to bow to Adam and is subsequently cast out of heaven (Q. 7:11-18), shares similarities with both. The portrayal of Iblīs mirrors the New Testament’s depiction of Beelzebul as a high-ranking demonic entity opposing God’s will. Moreover, Azazel’s characterisation as a fallen angel teaching forbidden knowledge resonates with Iblīs’s role as a tempter, leading humanity astray (El-Zein, 2009). It’s worth noting, however, that these parallels do not necessarily indicate that Beelzebul and Azazel are directly equated with Iblīs in Islamic tradition.

A linguistic examination can provide further insight into these identities. The morphological transformation of Beelzebul from Baal Zebub (‘Lord of Flies’) to Baal Zebul (‘Lord of the High House’) is believed to be a deliberate attempt by the biblical authors to denigrate the Canaanite deity and undermine its authority (Stuckenbruck, 2003). Similarly, the term Azazel is etymologically ambiguous, with proposed meanings including ‘God strengthens,’ ‘entire removal,’ or ‘rough, rugged’ – the latter two aligning with the interpretation of Azazel as a wilderness demon (Day, 2002).

The Qurʾān and the Hadith corpus present humans, angels, and jinn as distinct categories of sentient beings interacting in multifarious ways. These interactions influence individual lives and the broader spiritual and physical worlds (al-ʿālamayn).

Angels (malā’ikah), according to Islamic theology, are celestial beings created by Allāh from light (nūr). They are inherently obedient to Allāh’s commands and perform various tasks in the universe, including delivering revelations to prophets, recording the deeds of humans, and governing natural phenomena (Q. 66:6; 21:27; 43:19; 79:1-5). Angels also interact with humans directly, inspiring them towards good and comforting the dying during the transition into the Afterlife (Q. 41:30; Bukhari 6194).

Conversely, jinn are beings created from smokeless fire (mārij min nār) and inhabit an unseen world parallel to ours. They are capable of both belief (īmān) and disbelief, freedom and responsibility analogous to humans (Q. 72:1-14; 6:130). Jinn can engage with humans in various ways, from peaceful coexistence to malicious possession, which the Islamic tradition addresses with rites of exorcism (ruqyah).

The relationship between humans and angels is often depicted as one of guidance and support. Islamic tradition maintains that each person is accompanied by two angels, the Kirāman Kātibīn, who record their deeds, with the angel on the right noting the good actions and the angel on the left commenting on the evil ones (Q. 50:17-18). Moreover, the angel Jibrīl (Gabriel) holds a significant role, conveying Allāh’s revelations to the prophets, most notably to the Prophet Muhammad during the Night of Power (Laylat al-Qadr) (Q. 97:1-5; Bukhari 3).

On the other hand, the Qurʾān also refers to the jinn’s ability to influence human behaviour, both positively and negatively. The jinn can inspire people towards evil, as in the case of Iblīs, who refused to bow before Adam and became the archetypal tempter (Q. 2:34; 7:20- 22). However, there are also accounts of believing jinn who inspire and assist humans, as depicted in the story of King Solomon, who had the power to control and collaborate with jinn in his kingdom (Q. 27:17-44).

While angels and jinn have capacities for influencing human affairs, their interactions with humans operate on different moral and metaphysical planes. Angels are agents of divine will, promoting truth, justice, and spiritual development. In contrast, jinn have moral agency akin to humans; their influence spans a broad moral spectrum, ranging from benevolent to malevolent.

The dynamic triadic interactions between humans, angels, and jinn reflect the broader cosmological framework in Islam, in which physical and spiritual realities are deeply intertwined. These interactions provide a locus for exploring existential questions of free will, moral responsibility, and the role of unseen forces in an individual’s life and the broader universe.

The story of the fall of certain angels, most notably Iblīs, holds a critical position within Islamic theology, exploring free will, disobedience, and the consequences of pride. It provides a prism through which we can examine the theological implications and lessons derived from these narratives.

The most prominent narrative is Iblīs’s rebellion against Allāh’s command to prostrate to Adam. In the Islamic tradition, Iblīs is often considered a jinni.

وَإِذْ قُلْنَا لِلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةِ ٱسْجُدُوا۟ لِـَٔادَمَ فَسَجَدُوٓا۟ إِلَّآ إِبْلِيسَ كَانَ مِنَ ٱلْجِنِّ فَفَسَقَ عَنْ أَمْرِ رَبِّهِۦٓ ۗ أَفَتَتَّخِذُونَهُۥ وَذُرِّيَّتَهُۥٓ أَوْلِيَآءَ مِن دُونِى وَهُمْ لَكُمْ عَدُوٌّۢ ۚ بِئْسَ لِلظَّـٰلِمِينَ بَدَلًۭا ٥٠

We said to the angels, ‘Bow down before Adam,’ and they all bowed down, but not Iblis: he was one of the jinns, and he disobeyed his Lord’s command. Are you [people] going to take him and his offspring as your masters instead of Me, even though they are your enemies? What a bad bargain for the evildoers! (Q. 18:50)

who was raised in the company of angels due to his piety. The defining moment of Iblīs’s fall comes with his refusal to obey Allāh’s command to bow before Adam, the first human,

وَلَقَدْ خَلَقْنَـٰكُمْ ثُمَّ صَوَّرْنَـٰكُمْ ثُمَّ قُلْنَا لِلْمَلَـٰٓئِكَةِ ٱسْجُدُوا۟ لِـَٔادَمَ فَسَجَدُوٓا۟ إِلَّآ إِبْلِيسَ لَمْ يَكُن مِّنَ ٱلسَّـٰجِدِينَ ١١ قَالَ مَا مَنَعَكَ أَلَّا تَسْجُدَ إِذْ أَمَرْتُكَ ۖ قَالَ أَنَا۠ خَيْرٌۭ مِّنْهُ خَلَقْتَنِى مِن نَّارٍۢ وَخَلَقْتَهُۥ مِن طِينٍۢ ١٢

“We created you, We gave you shape, and then We said to the angels, ‘Bow down before Adam,’ and they did. But not Iblis: he was not one of those who bowed down. God said, ‘What prevented you from bowing down as I commanded you?’ and he said, ‘I am better than him: You created me from fire and him from clay’” (Q. 7:11-12).

Iblīs’ justification for his disobedience was his perceived superiority over Adam, as he was created from smokeless fire, whereas Adam was made from clay (Q. 38:76). Consequently, Iblīs was cast out from the divine presence and became a paradigm of pride; disobedience, and unbelief (kufr) in Islamic theology (El-Badawi, 2019).

The narrative of Iblīs’s fall holds profound theological implications. Firstly, it underscores the sanctity of Allāh’s commands and the necessity of absolute obedience, regardless of personal reasoning. Iblīs’s sin was disobedience and his presumption in arguing with Allāh’s decree, manifesting excessive pride and self-reliance (Al-Ashqar, 2003).

Secondly, the narrative emphasises the dangers of pride and arrogance. Islamic theology holds that Iblīs’s disobedience stemmed from his arrogance over his origin, illustrating how arrogance can lead to moral and spiritual downfall. It serves as a reminder that virtue lies not in one’s origin or abilities but in one’s humility and obedience to Allāh (Rahman, 2012).

Thirdly, the fall of Iblīs provides insights into the nature of evil in Islamic theology. Iblīs becomes the archetypal source of temptation, seeking to lead humans astray from Allāh’s path (Q. 7:16-17). However, the Qurʾān emphasises that Iblīs has no power over those who believe and rely on their Lord (Q. 16:99). Therefore, the story serves as a metaphor for the inner struggle (jihad al-nafs) against one’s lower desires and ego (nafs).

Notably, the Islamic tradition distinguishes Iblīs and the other angels. While Iblīs fell from grace due to his disobedience, angels are considered infallible, always obeying Allāh’s commands (Q. 66:6). This distinction marks a departure from some Christian and Jewish interpretations, which narrate a rebellion among a group of angels, casting them as fallen angels. In contrast, Islamic theology affirms the moral impeccability of angels, emphasising their role as instruments of divine will and guidance.

Books

Belief in divine books (Kutub) is one of Islam’s six articles of faith (Arkān al-īmān). The Qur’an refers to four divine books: the Torah (Tawrah), the Psalms (Zabūr), the Gospel (Injīl), and the Qurʾān itself. This article will offer an understanding of the significance and content of these holy scriptures.

The Torah, given to Prophet Moses (Mūsā), is the earliest of the divine books mentioned in the Qur’an. Allāh says: “Indeed, We sent down the Torah, in which was guidance and light” (Q. 5:44). The Torah constitutes the primary law (Shari’ah) for the Israelites, containing detailed regulations on religious observances, civil and criminal law, and ethical teachings (Peters, 1990). It has immense significance in forming the Jewish identity and covenant with Allāh.

The Zabūr, given to Prophet David (Dāwūd), is mentioned in the Qur’an:

وَلَقَدْ كَتَبْنَا فِى ٱلزَّبُورِ مِنۢ بَعْدِ ٱلذِّكْرِ أَنَّ ٱلْأَرْضَ يَرِثُهَا عِبَادِىَ ٱلصَّـٰلِحُونَ ١٠٥

“And We have already written in the book [of Psalms] after the [previous] mention that My righteous servants inherit the land [of Paradise]” (Q. 21:105).

While less is known about the Zabūr’s specific contents, it is generally understood to contain David’s prayers, hymns, and wisdom. Its primary function is considered as a source of spiritual guidance and contemplation (Ayoub, 2007).

The Injīl revealed to Prophet Jesus (ʿĪsā) is described in the Qur’an as a confirmation of the Torah:

وَلَقَدْ ءَاتَيْنَا مُوسَى ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ وَقَفَّيْنَا مِنۢ بَعْدِهِۦ بِٱلرُّسُلِ ۖ وَءَاتَيْنَا عِيسَى ٱبْنَ مَرْيَمَ ٱلْبَيِّنَـٰتِ وَأَيَّدْنَـٰهُ بِرُوحِ ٱلْقُدُسِ ۗ أَفَكُلَّمَا جَآءَكُمْ رَسُولٌۢ بِمَا لَا تَهْوَىٰٓ أَنفُسُكُمُ ٱسْتَكْبَرْتُمْ فَفَرِيقًۭا كَذَّبْتُمْ وَفَرِيقًۭا تَقْتُلُونَ ٨٧

“And We gave Jesus, the son of Mary, clear proofs and supported him with the Pure Spirit. But is it [not] that every time a messenger came to you, [O Children of Israel], with what your souls did not desire, you were arrogant?” (Q. 2:87).

The Injīl is seen as containing Jesus’s prophetic teachings, emphasising spirituality, repentance, and Allāh’s mercy, marking a shift from the legalistic orientation of the Torah (Accad, 2003). Lastly, the Qur’an, revealed to Prophet Muhammad, is viewed as the final and most comprehensive divine book. It confirms the truth in the previous scriptures, corrects any alterations (tahrif), and provides a complete guide for human life. As stated in the Qurʾān:

ذَٰلِكَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبُ لَا رَيْبَ ۛ فِيهِ ۛ هُدًۭى لِّلْمُتَّقِينَ ٢

“This is the Book about which there is no doubt, a guidance for those conscious of Allāh” (Q. 2:2).

The Qur’an addresses all aspects of life, including belief, worship, ethics, law, and society. Its overarching theme is the unity of Allāh (tawhīd) and humanity’s responsibility towards Him (Sardar, 2011). The belief in these divine books signifies the acknowledgement of a chain of prophetic revelations culminating in Islam. It connotes respect for the shared Abrahamic heritage while maintaining the distinctiveness and finality of the Qur’anic message. It is important to note that while We believe in the divine origin of these scriptures, they also hold that their original messages have been distorted over time, except for the Qur’an, which they believe to be preserved in its original form (Ernst, 2011).

The languages of revelation, or in which divine scriptures were initially revealed, hold immense significance within the framework of Islamic theology. The three major languages in this context are Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic – corresponding to the Torah, Injīl (Gospel), and Qurʾān, respectively.

In Islamic belief, the languages of revelation are more than mere vehicles for divine communication. They’re regarded as divinely chosen, meticulously structured to reflect the profundity of their divine message (Mir, 2014). This is particularly emphasised in the context of Arabic, the language of the Qurʾān, as it states,

إِنَّا جَعَلْنَـٰهُ قُرْءَٰنًا عَرَبِيًّۭا لَّعَلَّكُمْ تَعْقِلُونَ ٣

“Indeed, We have made it an Arabic Qurʾān that you might understand” (Q. 43:3).

Hebrew, the language of the Torah, holds significance in Jewish and Islamic traditions. While Muslim scholars acknowledge its divine origin, they emphasise that the Torah’s Hebrew texts have undergone alterations (tahrif) over time. However, this still needs to diminish the Hebrew scriptures’ profound linguistic and literary value, which continue to inspire numerous interpretations and commentaries within the Jewish tradition (Robinson, 2004).

Aramaic, the language of the Injīl, has often been overlooked due to the predominance of Greek in extant New Testament manuscripts. However, many scholars agree that Aramaic was likely the mother tongue of Jesus (ʿĪsā) and the language he taught. Understanding Aramaic can offer valuable insights into the linguistic context of the Injīl’s initial revelation and enrich comparative scriptural studies (Casey, 1998).

Arabic, the language of the Qurʾān, is considered sacred within the Islamic tradition. Its significance lies in its richness and complexity, capable of conveying the multilayered meanings of the Qurʾān. Knowledge of Arabic facilitates a deeper understanding of the Qurʾān and fosters a direct, unmediated relationship with the divine text. As Allāh says,

إِنَّآ أَنزَلْنَـٰهُ قُرْءَٰنًا عَرَبِيًّۭا لَّعَلَّكُمْ تَعْقِلُونَ ٢

“Indeed, I revealed it as an Arabic Qurʾān” (Q. 12:2)

The implication is clear that Arabic was chosen for its capacity to carry the divine message (Suleiman, 2003). Moreover, the Arabic language has significantly shaped Islamic theology, law, and culture. Qurʾānic Arabic became the standard for eloquence (fasāḥa) and correctness (ṣaḥīḥa) in the Arabic language, significantly influencing Arabic grammar, lexicography, rhetoric, and literary aesthetics (Versteegh, 2001).

However, the importance of the languages of revelation doesn’t entail that understanding divine messages is exclusive to those who master these languages. The scriptures ‘ translations and exegesis (tafsīr) have made them accessible to diverse linguistic communities worldwide. Yet, scholars agree that translations, while helpful, are interpretive renditions and cannot fully capture the linguistic and literary nuances of the original texts (Ernst, 2003).

Changes and adaptations in divine texts have long been a focal point of academic and theological debate. While Islam acknowledges the original divine source of all Abrahamic scriptures, it simultaneously posits a theory of distortion or alteration (tahrif) in these texts, explicitly referring to the Torah and the Injīl (Gospel). The Qurʾān, in contrast, is believed to have remained unchanged since its revelation to the Prophet Muhammad.

This notion of tahrif doesn’t imply an outright rejection of the Torah and Injīl but suggests alterations in the transmitted texts, whether through interpretation or transcription over time (Speight, 2007). The Qurʾān refers to this, albeit indirectly, stating, “So woe to those who write the Scripture with their own hands, then say,

فَوَيْلٌۭ لِّلَّذِينَ يَكْتُبُونَ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ بِأَيْدِيهِمْ ثُمَّ يَقُولُونَ هَـٰذَا مِنْ عِندِ ٱللَّهِ لِيَشْتَرُوا۟ بِهِۦ ثَمَنًۭا قَلِيلًۭا ۖ فَوَيْلٌۭ لَّهُم مِّمَّا كَتَبَتْ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَوَيْلٌۭ لَّهُم مِّمَّا يَكْسِبُونَ ٧٩

‘This is from Allāh,’ to exchange it for a small price” (Q. 2:79).

Here, Allāh criticises those falsely attributing their writings to the divine. Debate surrounds the nature and extent of these alleged changes. Some Muslim scholars argue for a partial tahrif, suggesting the original divine message has been obscured but not entirely lost. Others advocate for a total tahrif, asserting that the divine texts were entirely replaced (Rippin, 2005). Modern academic studies, however, often approach these texts from a textual criticism perspective, acknowledging changes and seeking to understand the historical, socio-political, and theological contexts that might have influenced these changes (Ehrman, 2005).

The Torah, for instance, has undergone extensive changes and adaptations. Documented in various stages of Hebrew, it reflects different historical periods and ideologies. The Documentary Hypothesis, first proposed by Julius Wellhausen in the 19th century, posits that the Torah is a compilation of several sources edited together, which might explain some inconsistencies and repetitions within the text (Carr, 2013).

As for the Qurʾān, it has been preserved without change since its initial revelation. However, non-Muslim scholars have proposed theories of its development over time. John Wansbrough, for example, suggested the Qurʾān’s evolution over a more extended period than traditionally believed, a perspective that has been controversial and widely critiqued (Rippin, 2005).

Prophets

Messengers (rusul) and prophets (anbiyā’) hold a distinctive place in Islamic belief, distinguished as intermediaries in the divine-human relationship. Their primary role, as designated conveyers of Allāh’s revelations, is to guide humanity on the straight path (ṣirāṭ al-mustaqīm) by delivering the divine message.

As Allāh states in the Qurʾān:

كَانَ ٱلنَّاسُ أُمَّةًۭ وَٰحِدَةًۭ فَبَعَثَ ٱللَّهُ ٱلنَّبِيِّـۧنَ مُبَشِّرِينَ وَمُنذِرِينَ وَأَنزَلَ مَعَهُمُ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ بِٱلْحَقِّ لِيَحْكُمَ بَيْنَ ٱلنَّاسِ فِيمَا ٱخْتَلَفُوا۟ فِيهِ ۚ وَمَا ٱخْتَلَفَ فِيهِ إِلَّا ٱلَّذِينَ أُوتُوهُ مِنۢ بَعْدِ مَا جَآءَتْهُمُ ٱلْبَيِّنَـٰتُ بَغْيًۢا بَيْنَهُمْ ۖ فَهَدَى ٱللَّهُ ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ لِمَا ٱخْتَلَفُوا۟ فِيهِ مِنَ ٱلْحَقِّ بِإِذْنِهِۦ ۗ وَٱللَّهُ يَهْدِى مَن يَشَآءُ إِلَىٰ صِرَٰطٍۢ مُّسْتَقِيمٍ ٢١٣

“Mankind was one single nation, and Allāh sent Messengers with glad tidings and warnings” (Q. 2:213).

Here, the Qurʾān acknowledges the universality of the prophetic mission, implying a continuity and similarity in the messages conveyed by different prophets to their respective communities (Brown, 2009). Aside from their duty of prophethood, a noteworthy characteristic of these messengers is their human nature. Despite their pivotal roles, prophets in Islam are human and not divine. They eat, drink, marry, and die, serving as exemplars of ideal human conduct rather than transcendent beings beyond human reach (Ali, 2002). This is affirmed in the Qurʾān when Prophet Muhammad is instructed to say:

قُلْ إِنَّمَآ أَنَا۠ بَشَرٌۭ مِّثْلُكُمْ يُوحَىٰٓ إِلَىَّ أَنَّمَآ إِلَـٰهُكُمْ إِلَـٰهٌۭ وَٰحِدٌۭ ۖ فَمَن كَانَ يَرْجُوا۟ لِقَآءَ رَبِّهِۦ فَلْيَعْمَلْ عَمَلًۭا صَـٰلِحًۭا وَلَا يُشْرِكْ بِعِبَادَةِ رَبِّهِۦٓ أَحَدًۢا ١١٠

“I am only a man like you. It has been inspired to me that your Ilāh (God) is One Illā (God)” (Q. 18:110).

Although prophets are all considered morally upright (maʿṣūmūn), there is a hierarchy among them. In Islamic tradition, five prophets—Nūḥ (Noah), Ibrāhīm (Abraham), Mūsā (Moses), ʿĪsā (Jesus), and Muḥammad—are known as the ‘ulū al-ʿazm, the prophets of solid determination, and are regarded more highly for their steadfastness in the face of adversity (Esposito, 2002).

The final and most revered Prophet in Islam is Muhammad, considered the ‘Seal of the Prophets’ (khātam al-nabiyyīn). His life (sīrah), actions (sunna), and sayings (hadīth) serve as the primary source of guidance for We alongside the Qurʾān. The Prophet’s life exemplifies a practical application of Qurʾānic principles, providing a tangible example to follow daily (Madani, 2018).

Furthermore, the role of messengers in Islam also extends to the eschatological dimension. In Islamic eschatology, each Prophet will be a witness over his community on the Day of Judgement, as indicated by the verse:

وَكَذَٰلِكَ جَعَلْنَـٰكُمْ أُمَّةًۭ وَسَطًۭا لِّتَكُونُوا۟ شُهَدَآءَ عَلَى ٱلنَّاسِ وَيَكُونَ ٱلرَّسُولُ عَلَيْكُمْ شَهِيدًۭا ۗ وَمَا جَعَلْنَا ٱلْقِبْلَةَ ٱلَّتِى كُنتَ عَلَيْهَآ إِلَّا لِنَعْلَمَ مَن يَتَّبِعُ ٱلرَّسُولَ مِمَّن يَنقَلِبُ عَلَىٰ عَقِبَيْهِ ۚ وَإِن كَانَتْ لَكَبِيرَةً إِلَّا عَلَى ٱلَّذِينَ هَدَى ٱللَّهُ ۗ وَمَا كَانَ ٱللَّهُ لِيُضِيعَ إِيمَـٰنَكُمْ ۚ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ بِٱلنَّاسِ لَرَءُوفٌۭ رَّحِيمٌۭ ١٤٣

Divine intervention and guidance are central to the Islamic understanding of the world. It implicates Allāh’s active involvement in human lives and the world. At the heart of Islamic belief is the conviction in Allāh’s omnipotence and omniscience. The Qurʾān consistently attributes all actions and occurrences to the will and knowledge of Allāh:

۞ وَعِندَهُۥ مَفَاتِحُ ٱلْغَيْبِ لَا يَعْلَمُهَآ إِلَّا هُوَ ۚ وَيَعْلَمُ مَا فِى ٱلْبَرِّ وَٱلْبَحْرِ ۚ وَمَا تَسْقُطُ مِن وَرَقَةٍ إِلَّا يَعْلَمُهَا وَلَا حَبَّةٍۢ فِى ظُلُمَـٰتِ ٱلْأَرْضِ وَلَا رَطْبٍۢ وَلَا يَابِسٍ إِلَّا فِى كِتَـٰبٍۢ مُّبِينٍۢ ٥٩

“And with Him are the keys of the unseen; none knows them except Him. And He knows what is on the land and in the sea. Not a leaf falls but that He knows it” (Q. 6:59).

This verse emphasises Allāh’s encompassing knowledge of all that transpires in the universe, substantiating the belief that nothing happens outside His knowledge and will. A complementary principle in Islamic thought is that Allāh does not only have foreknowledge of all occurrences, but He actively guides and directs them towards a predetermined divine plan (Murata & Chittick, 1994).

The belief in divine guidance, or hidāya, is paramount in Islamic thought. According to Islamic theology, guidance emanates solely from Allāh and is viewed as His most generous blessing. The Qurʾān frequently reiterates this, asserting that Allāh guides whom He wills:

“Indeed, [O Muhammad], you do not guide whom you like, but Allāh guides whom He wills” (Q. 28:56).

However, it is essential to note that Islamic scholars have differentiated between two types of divine guidance: general guidance (al-hidāya al-ʿāmma) and specific guidance (al-hidāya al-khāṣṣa). The former is believed to be extended to all creations and encompasses the instinctual knowledge bestowed upon animals, plants, and inanimate objects to fulfil their purpose in the cosmic order. The latter is unique to rational beings and implies guidance towards spiritual and moral rectitude (Attas, 1984).

Divine intervention, or iʿjāz, in Islamic understanding, goes hand in hand with the concept of divine guidance. It refers to the supernatural interruption of ordinary events to assert divine power and guidance. Divine intervention is frequent in the Qurʾān, such as the parting of the Red Sea for Moses and his people (Q. 26:63) or the protection of Abraham from the fiery furnace (Q. 21:69).

Nevertheless, it is vital to clarify that these interventions are not violations of natural laws but manifestations of a higher divine law operating beyond human comprehension (Leaman, 2006). Furthermore, they serve as signs (āyāt) of Allāh’s omnipotence and active involvement in the world, substantiating the idea of continuous guidance and interaction with His creation.

Messengers, or rusul, play a central role in Islam, delivering divine messages, teaching religious laws, warning of divine wrath, and setting ethical examples for their communities.

The first role, the delivery of divine messages, is fundamental to understanding the function of messengers. As intermediaries between Allāh and human beings, they convey Allāh’s instructions, laws, and moral guidance. The Qurʾān itself represents such a divine message delivered through the Prophet Muhammad:

۞ يَـٰٓأَيُّهَا ٱلرَّسُولُ بَلِّغْ مَآ أُنزِلَ إِلَيْكَ مِن رَّبِّكَ ۖ وَإِن لَّمْ تَفْعَلْ فَمَا بَلَّغْتَ رِسَالَتَهُۥ ۚ وَٱللَّهُ يَعْصِمُكَ مِنَ ٱلنَّاسِ ۗ إِنَّ ٱللَّهَ لَا يَهْدِى ٱلْقَوْمَ ٱلْكَـٰفِرِينَ ٦٧

“O Messenger! Proclaim (the Message) which has been sent down to you from your Lord…” (Q. 5:67).

The reception and delivery of these divine messages often served to establish and validate their prophethood (Afsaruddin, 2014). Closely linked to this role is the duty of teaching religious precepts. As the Qurʾān states,

هُوَ ٱلَّذِى بَعَثَ فِى ٱلْأُمِّيِّـۧنَ رَسُولًۭا مِّنْهُمْ يَتْلُوا۟ عَلَيْهِمْ ءَايَـٰتِهِۦ وَيُزَكِّيهِمْ وَيُعَلِّمُهُمُ ٱلْكِتَـٰبَ وَٱلْحِكْمَةَ وَإِن كَانُوا۟ مِن قَبْلُ لَفِى ضَلَـٰلٍۢ مُّبِينٍۢ ٢

“It is He Who has sent amongst the Unlettered a messenger from among themselves, to rehearse to them His Signs, to purify them, and to instruct them in Scripture and Wisdom” (Q. 62:2).

This verse explicitly outlines the Messenger’s duty to impart knowledge of the Qurʾān and the wisdom it contains, a role which extends to teaching ritual practices such as prayer and fasting (Esposito, 2011). The warning of divine wrath represents another crucial task of the messengers. They alert their communities to the consequences of disbelief and moral failure, as seen in the narratives of Noah, Lot, and Hud in the Qurʾān (Q. 7:59-72). However, their warnings are punitive and aimed at encouraging repentance and moral rectitude (AlBayhaqi, 2002).

Lastly, messengers are seen as moral exemplars, their lives representing ‘the best pattern of conduct’ for We to emulate

لَّقَدْ كَانَ لَكُمْ فِى رَسُولِ ٱللَّهِ أُسْوَةٌ حَسَنَةٌۭ لِّمَن كَانَ يَرْجُوا۟ ٱللَّهَ وَٱلْيَوْمَ ٱلْـَٔاخِرَ وَذَكَرَ ٱللَّهَ كَثِيرًۭا ٢١

“The Messenger of God is an excellent model for those of you who put your hope in God and the Last Day and remember Him often.” (Q. 33:21).

The hadith literature provides extensive accounts of the Prophet Muhammad’s character, habits, and actions, indicating the importance of this role (Al-Bukhari, 870). However, despite the commonality of these roles, it is essential to note the variety among the messengers in their missions and the communities they were sent to. While some messengers, like Moses and Muhammad, were sent with comprehensive legal codes (shari’a), others, like Jesus, were sent to affirm existing laws and bring spiritual renewal (Q. 3:50).

Qadr

The Islamic doctrine of predestination, or al-qadr, encapsulates the belief in divine decree and divine knowledge, positing that all events, actions, and outcomes are predetermined and known by Allāh. It represents one of the six articles of īmān and is a fundamental component of Islamic theology, warranting careful consideration and nuanced understanding.

Al-Badr is based on two intertwined concepts: Allāh’s omniscience, knowing everything past, present, and future, and His omnipotence, whereby He has power over everything. These notions are well encapsulated in the Qurʾān:

قُلْ أَتُعَلِّمُونَ ٱللَّهَ بِدِينِكُمْ وَٱللَّهُ يَعْلَمُ مَا فِى ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَمَا فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ ۚ وَٱللَّهُ بِكُلِّ شَىْءٍ عَلِيمٌۭ ١٦

“Verily, Allāh is All-Knower, All-Aware” (Q. 49:16),

لِلَّهِ مُلْكُ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ وَمَا فِيهِنَّ ۚ وَهُوَ عَلَىٰ كُلِّ شَىْءٍۢ قَدِيرٌۢ ١٢٠

“He has power over everything” (Q. 5:120).

These verses underscore Allāh’s ultimate control over the universe and His foreknowledge of all occurrences (Farah, 2003). However, understanding predestination in Islam requires balancing these concepts with the belief in human free will. On the one hand, Allāh decrees and knows all events. On the other hand, He has endowed humans with the ability to make choices, rendering them morally accountable for their actions: “Whoever does a wrong will be recompensed for it…” (Q. 4:111). This verse stresses the significance of human action in Islam’s ethical and moral structure (Leaman, 2006).

Several scholars have attempted to reconcile these seemingly contradictory principles. AlAsh’ari (d.935), a key figure in traditional Sunni theology, argued that while humans perform actions, the ability to act is created and given by Allāh, thereby preserving both divine power and human responsibility (Hoover, 2012). Conversely, the Mutazilites, known for their rationalist approach, prioritised human free will to safeguard moral accountability, thus diverging from a more determinist interpretation of predestination (Murata & Chittick, 1994).

The discourse on predestination also extends to the issues of divine justice and the problem of evil. Scholars like Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya (d.1350) affirmed divine wisdom behind all occurrences, even hardships and calamities, perceiving them as trials and tests for believers. However, the challenge of explaining the existence of suffering within the framework of divine justice and predestination remains an enduring point of theological discussion (Leaman, 2006).

The paradox of predestination (al-qadr) and free will in Islam invokes a pivotal theological debate within Islamic intellectual history. It seeks to reconcile the seemingly contradictory assertions of Allāh’s all-encompassing foreknowledge and control over the universe with the capacity of humans to exercise free will and make independent choices.

This paradox’s heart is the relationship between divine sovereignty and human agency. The belief in Allāh’s omnipotence and omniscience is foundational to Islamic thought. The Qurʾān affirms,

” He has the keys to the unseen: no one knows them but Him. He knows all that is in the land and sea. No leaf falls without His knowledge, nor is there a single grain in the darkness of the earth, or anything, fresh or withered, that is not written in a clear Record.” (Q. 6:59).

This suggests an all-embracing divine knowledge, which extends to all phenomena, reinforcing the concept of predestination (Winter, 2008). Conversely, Islamic moral and ethical structures are predicated on the belief in human free will. The Qurʾān notes,

مَّنْ عَمِلَ صَـٰلِحًۭا فَلِنَفْسِهِۦ ۖ وَمَنْ أَسَآءَ فَعَلَيْهَا ۗ وَمَا رَبُّكَ بِظَلَّـٰمٍۢ لِّلْعَبِيدِ ٤٦

“ Whoever does good does it for his soul, and whoever does evil does it against his soul: your Lord is never unjust to His creatures.”(Q. 41:46).

Here, the Qurʾān emphasises personal responsibility for actions, implying the existence of free will. Therefore, understanding these two seemingly contradictory principles is critical to interpreting the paradox of predestination and free will (Cf. Leaman, 2006). This paradox instigated profound theological discourses within the Islamic tradition. The Sunni orthodoxy, represented by the Ash’arites, proposed a model of ‘acquisition’ (kasb), suggesting that while humans are Allāh creates the actors, their ability to act. This theory preserves divine omnipotence and human free will, providing a syncretic solution to the paradox (Frank, 1994).

On the other hand, the Mu’tazilites, associated with rationalistic theology, defended the doctrine of free will (tawallud) more assertively. They maintained that humans must be free to choose their actions to sustain moral responsibility. Thus, they seemed to subordinate Allāh’s omnipotence to human free will, an argument often criticised for undermining divine sovereignty (van Ess, 2006).

A third group, the Maturidites, attempted to balance these opposing views. They argued that Allāh creates all actions, but humans have the ‘capacity’ (istitā’a) to act, thereby concurrently affirming divine omnipotence and human free will (Burrell, 1986).

The concept of predestination, or al-qadr, carries profound theological implications that intersect with ethics, spirituality, and social attitudes. A nuanced understanding of al-qadr is vital because it shapes our perspectives in many areas.

Firstly, al-qadr has implications for ethics and morality. The belief that Allāh foreordains everything can be misinterpreted to absolve individuals of personal responsibility, thereby undermining the essence of moral culpability. However, Islamic tradition vehemently rejects fatalistic attitudes. The Qurʾān states,

وَلَا تَزِرُ وَازِرَةٌۭ وِزْرَ أُخْرَىٰ ۚ وَإِن تَدْعُ مُثْقَلَةٌ إِلَىٰ حِمْلِهَا لَا يُحْمَلْ مِنْهُ شَىْءٌۭ وَلَوْ كَانَ ذَا قُرْبَىٰٓ ۗ إِنَّمَا تُنذِرُ ٱلَّذِينَ يَخْشَوْنَ رَبَّهُم بِٱلْغَيْبِ وَأَقَامُوا۟ ٱلصَّلَوٰةَ ۚ وَمَن تَزَكَّىٰ فَإِنَّمَا يَتَزَكَّىٰ لِنَفْسِهِۦ ۚ وَإِلَى ٱللَّهِ ٱلْمَصِيرُ ١٨

” No burdened soul will bear the burden of another: even if a heavily laden soul should cry for help, none of its load will be carried, not even by a close relative. But you [Prophet] can only warn those who fear their Lord, though they cannot see Him, and keep up the prayerwhoever purifies himself does so for his benefit–– everything returns to God.” (Q. 35:18).

This reinforces the notion that individuals are responsible for their actions, an assertion that maintains the integrity of moral responsibility within the Islamic ethical system, despite belief in al-qadr (Murata & Chittick, 2009). Secondly, the concept of al-qadr is also integral to the spiritual resilience of Us. Belief in divine predestination can provide solace during trials and tribulations, fostering a sense of peace and acceptance. Despite the vicissitudes of life, this trust in Allāh’s wisdom and justice is central to the Islamic ethos. The Qurʾān consoles, “No disaster strikes except by permission of Allāh. And whoever believes in Allāh – He will guide his heart…” (Q. 64:11). The belief in al-qadr thus acts as a spiritual anchor, cultivating patience, fortitude, and reliance on Allāh in the face of adversity (Yusuf, 2016).

Furthermore, the doctrine of predestination has societal implications, particularly concerning socioeconomic disparities. While it could lead to complacency and acceptance of unjust structures, Islamic teachings stress that al-qadr should not be used as a pretext to overlook social injustices or shirk from making efforts to improve societal conditions. The Prophet Muhammad’s life exemplifies the active struggle for justice and societal betterment, despite the belief in predestination (Moten, 2005).

Moreover, al-qadr bears theological implications for soteriology, the study of salvation. Whether predestination implies that Allāh has predestined some individuals to Hell is often questioned. While the Qurʾān states that Allāh guides whom He wills and leads astray whom He wills (Q. 14:4), Islamic theology emphasises that divine guidance is intrinsically linked with an individual’s desire to seek truth and goodness. Hence, predestination does not negate the mercy and justice of Allāh in matters of salvation (Damad, 2001).

Finally, belief in al-qadr helps engender humility and gratitude, crucial virtues in Islamic spirituality. Recognising that all successes are ultimately a result of Allāh’s will can prevent arrogance and instil a sense of gratitude. The Qurʾān reminds us,

وَمَا بِكُم مِّن نِّعْمَةٍۢ فَمِنَ ٱللَّهِ ۖ ثُمَّ إِذَا مَسَّكُمُ ٱلضُّرُّ فَإِلَيْهِ تَجْـَٔرُونَ ٥٣

“And whatever blessings you have, it is from Allāh” (Q. 16:53).

The Qurʾān introduces profound cosmic symbols to articulate its theology. Among them, the Pen (al-qalam) and the Preserved Tablet (al-lauḥ al-maḥfūẓ) are prominent, carrying profound theological, philosophical, and cosmological implications.

The Qurʾān refers to the Pen in two instances. The Surah (chapter), named Al-Qalam (The Pen), begins with,

نٓ ۚ وَٱلْقَلَمِ وَمَا يَسْطُرُونَ ١

“Nun. By the Pen and what they inscribe” (Q. 68:1).

The other reference is Sura Al-Alaq, which says, “Read, and your Lord is the Most Generous – Who taught by the pen – Taught man that which he knew not” (Q. 96:3-5). These verses highlight the Pen’s role in divine instruction, symbolising Allāh’s communication with creation and the impartation of knowledge. Islamic tradition interprets the Pen as a metaphysical symbol, representing the instrument of divine wisdom that inscribes Allāh’s knowledge and decrees (Chittick, 1989). It can be seen as a symbolic manifestation of Allāh’s attribute al-Kātib (The Writer), indicating the comprehensiveness and definiteness of His knowledge (Haleem, 2005).

Moreover, the Pen’s association with teaching and learning underscores the importance of literacy and education in Islam. This is significant in a faith where the first revealed word was ‘Read’ (Iqra), further reinforcing the emphasis on knowledge acquisition as a means of spiritual and societal growth (Halstead, 2004).

The Preserved Tablet, mentioned in the Qurʾān as, “Rather, it is a glorious Qurʾān, [Inscribed] in a Preserved Tablet” (Q. 85:21-22), is another potent symbol. It embodies the repository of Allāh’s knowledge, containing everything that was, is, and will be. The tablet signifies the unchangeable and timeless nature of Allāh’s knowledge and will. It symbolises the master blueprint of the cosmos, detailing every event, large and small, in the universe (Nasr, 1993).

The relation between the Pen and the Tablet can signify the relationship between the divine command (amr) and the divine creation (khalq). The Pen, representing Allāh’s command, inscribes upon the Tablet, meaning Allāh’s creation. This reflects the Islamic view that the universe, in its every detail, manifests Allāh’s knowledge and will (Leaman, 2006).

Exploring these symbols in the light of Islamic metaphysics can illuminate our understanding of key theological concepts. While the Pen emphasises the dynamic, creative aspect of the divine, the Tablet underscores the eternal, immutable nature of divine knowledge. Both symbols highlight the intersection of temporality and eternity, change and permanence, in the divine order of existence (Murata & Chittick, 2009).

The concept of free will plays a critical role in the broader conversation surrounding divine predestination and human agency. Its study can offer insightful perspectives on the religion’s understanding of moral responsibility, justice, and accountability in the Afterlife. The Qurʾān affirms the principle of human free will in numerous instances. For example, Surah Al-Insan, states:

إِنَّا هَدَيْنَـٰهُ ٱلسَّبِيلَ إِمَّا شَاكِرًۭا وَإِمَّا كَفُورًا ٣

“Indeed, We guided him to the way, be he grateful or ungrateful” (Q. 76:3).

Such verses highlight human beings’ ability to exercise their will, thereby making moral choices. However, this affirmation of human free will operates within divine omnipotence and omniscience, a premise integral to Islamic monotheism. As the Qurʾān notes,

وَمَا تَشَآءُونَ إِلَّآ أَن يَشَآءَ ٱللَّهُ رَبُّ ٱلْعَـٰلَمِينَ ٢٩

“And you do not will except that Allāh wills – Lord of the worlds” (Q. 81:29).

Thus, tension arises between the sovereignty of Allāh and the autonomy of human beings, sparking numerous intellectual debates across Islamic history (Leaman, 2008). Two dominant positions emerged: the Jabariyya, who argued for a deterministic worldview negating free will, and the Qadariyya, who advocated for libertarianism, attributing absolute free will to humans (Brown, 2009). Both positions, however, have been viewed as extreme within mainstream Islamic theology, which typically advocates for a balanced approach (Winter, 2008).

Ash’arism, a leading theological school in Sunni Islam, adopts a compatibilist position. They introduce the kasb (acquisition) concept, arguing that while Allāh creates all actions, humans acquire their deeds through intention and choice, ensuring moral accountability (Hoover, 2013). Mutazilism, on the other hand, advocates for a robust form of free will. They posit that Allāh’s justice necessitates that human beings be the authors of their actions, aligning more closely with libertarian views (Wolfson, 1976).

The Ḥanbalī scholar Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (d. 1350) synthesised these positions in a nuanced understanding of free will. He argued that Allāh’s foreknowledge does not necessitate compulsion. Instead, he held that while Allāh knows and allows all actions, human beings still choose their path. This perspective represents a middle ground between deterministic and libertarian extremes.

Islamic mysticism, or Sufism, also offers unique perspectives. Some Sufis, like Rūmī (d. 1273), view free will and predestination as two sides of the same coin, reflecting different aspects of human and divine realities. In their view, humans have free will within earthly existence, but from a divine standpoint, everything unfolds according to Allāh’s will (Chittick, 2005).

The complex interplay between divine predestination and human free will is a defining feature of Islamic theology, creating a unique balance that shapes the moral landscape and understanding of divine justice within the faith. The overarching understanding in mainstream Islamic thought is that these two seemingly contradictory ideas exist in carefully balanced harmony

This balance is underpinned by two core Islamic beliefs: the omnipotence and omniscience of Allāh and the moral responsibility of human beings. These dual beliefs create a space where divine predestination and human free will coexist (Leaman, 2008). The Qurʾān states,

فَالِقُ ٱلْإِصْبَاحِ وَجَعَلَ ٱلَّيْلَ سَكَنًۭا وَٱلشَّمْسَ وَٱلْقَمَرَ حُسْبَانًۭا ۚ ذَٰلِكَ تَقْدِيرُ ٱلْعَزِيزِ ٱلْعَلِيمِ ٩٦

“That is the determination of the Exalted in Might, the Knowing.” (Q. 6:96),

Signifying Allāh’s ultimate control over all affairs. Yet it also posits,

“Whoever does righteousness – it is for his [own] soul, and whoever does evil [does so] against it. And your Lord is not ever unjust to [His] servants.” (Q. 41:46),

Underscoring the individual’s responsibility for their deeds. This careful balance, which gives due recognition to both divine predestination and human free will, is most clearly expressed in the compatibilist stance taken by the Ash’arite school of thought. The Ash’arites introduce the notion of kasb (acquisition), asserting that Allāh creates all actions, but human beings acquire their deeds through their intentions and choices, thus retaining moral accountability (Hoover, 2013).

The Ash’arite position provides an intricate balance between acknowledging Allāh’s sovereignty and maintaining human responsibility. It is a concept central to understanding why, within Islamic belief, individuals are accountable on the Day of Judgement for their actions, despite those actions being known to and allowed by Allāh.

Renowned Ḥanbalī scholar, Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (d. 1350), provides further nuanced insight. He maintained that Allāh’s foreknowledge of our choices does not necessitate compulsion, thereby preserving the balance between human free will and divine predestination.

The Sufi tradition offers a different perspective on this balance, viewing predestination and free will as reflections of human and divine realities. For Sufis, humans possess free will within earthly existence, yet from the divine perspective, all events unfold according to Allāh’s will (Chittick, 2005).

Thus, the balance between divine predestination and human free will within Islamic theology is a testament to the nuanced nature of its moral and metaphysical landscape. The Qurʾān and the Prophet Muḥammad’s teachings affirm this delicate balance, ensuring that individuals are morally accountable while acknowledging that Allāh is the ultimate arbiter of all affairs. This balance provides justice, upholds the significance of human choice, and affirms the omnipotence and omniscience of Allāh.

The Islamic doctrine of free will and determinism has profound ethical implications, affecting many areas, including accountability, justice, morality, and individual responsibility. Central to this discussion is the Islamic belief in a day of reckoning (Qiyāmah), where individuals will be held accountable for their actions (Q. 75:12-15). The doctrine’s ethical dimensions emerge from how it mediates between Allāh’s omniscience and human autonomy.

Firstly, understanding free will and determinism in Islam provides the basis for moral accountability. The Qurʾān frequently underscores that everyone will bear the consequences of their actions, stating,

وَمَن يَعْمَلْ سُوٓءًا أَوْ يَظْلِمْ نَفْسَهُۥ ثُمَّ يَسْتَغْفِرِ ٱللَّهَ يَجِدِ ٱللَّهَ غَفُورًۭا رَّحِيمًۭا ١١٠

“And whoever does evil or wrongs himself but afterwards seeks Allāh’s Forgiveness, he will find Allāh Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.” (Q. 4:110).

Therefore, the ethical consequences of actions are integral to the believer’s existential framework, and determinism does not undermine this responsibility (Winter, 2008). Simultaneously, the concept of divine predestination underscores Allāh’s wisdom and justice are perfect, even if human beings do not fully grasp them. It upholds the belief that even apparent misfortunes are ultimately part of Allāh’s wisdom and contribute to a greater good. This perspective encourages patience, gratitude, and trust in divine providence (Lumbard, 2016).

Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya, a prominent Ḥanbalī scholar, provides a significant perspective on the ethical implications of this interplay. He states that Allāh’s foreknowledge does not imply compulsion, meaning that while Allāh knows every action a person will undertake, each person has free will and is responsible for their decisions. This interpretation preserves the individual’s moral responsibility, enabling ethics to significantly guide human behaviour

Furthermore, the debate around free will and determinism has shaped Islamic legal thought. For instance, the Mālikī school of thought, in its legal reasoning, significantly incorporates the individual’s capacity for voluntary action (Ikhtiyār), underlining the importance of personal responsibility (Khallāf, 2007).

The complex interplay between free will and determinism also influences the Islamic understanding of repentance (Tawbah). It is premised on the notion that an individual is free to sin and seek forgiveness from Allāh (Q.39:53). In this sense, the doctrine underscores the human ability to change and grow morally, thus affecting how We perceive redemption and personal transformation (Ceric, 2004).

The ethical implications of free will and determinism in Islam also extend to discussions of evil and suffering. Islamic theology maintains that while Allāh permits evil to occur, human beings possess free will, hence are responsible for their evil actions. This approach provides a nuanced perspective to theodicy, asserting that suffering can lead to spiritual growth and moral betterment (Abū Zayd, 2006).

Janna and Jahannam

In Islamic eschatology, the concepts of heaven (Jannah) and hell (Jahannam) are cornerstones of the Afterlife (Akhirah), each embodying different outcomes of divine judgement. These concepts not only offer profound insights into the Islamic ethical worldview but also serve as motivation for virtuous living and deterrents from immorality (Cook, 2010).

Jannah, often translated as ‘paradise’, is described in the Qurʾān as a reward for those who live righteously and believe in Allāh: “Indeed the righteous will be in a secure place; Within gardens and springs, wearing [garments] of fine silk and brocade, facing each other…So. (It will be), and We will marry them to fair women with large, [beautiful] eyes” (Q. 44:51-54). This illustrates an image of physical, spiritual, and emotional satisfaction, underlining a state of eternal peace, happiness, and fulfilment (Esposito, 2011). Descriptions of Jannah often include gardens beneath which rivers flow

وَبَشِّرِ ٱلَّذِينَ ءَامَنُوا۟ وَعَمِلُوا۟ ٱلصَّـٰلِحَـٰتِ أَنَّ لَهُمْ جَنَّـٰتٍۢ تَجْرِى مِن تَحْتِهَا ٱلْأَنْهَـٰرُ ۖ كُلَّمَا رُزِقُوا۟ مِنْهَا مِن ثَمَرَةٍۢ رِّزْقًۭا ۙ قَالُوا۟ هَـٰذَا ٱلَّذِى رُزِقْنَا مِن قَبْلُ ۖ وَأُتُوا۟ بِهِۦ مُتَشَـٰبِهًۭا ۖ وَلَهُمْ فِيهَآ أَزْوَٰجٌۭ مُّطَهَّرَةٌۭ ۖ وَهُمْ فِيهَا خَـٰلِدُونَ ٢٥

“[Prophet], give those who believe and do good the news that they will have Gardens graced with flowing streams. Whenever they are given sustenance from the fruits of these Gardens, they will say, ‘We have been given this before,’ because they were provided with something like it. They will have pure spouses, and there they will stay.” (Q. 2:25)

Signifying perpetual sustenance and prosperity. It is adorned with precious materials such as gold, pearls, and silk, reflecting an environment of beauty and luxury. These depictions motivate individuals to lead righteous lives (Leaman, 2006).

On the other hand, Jahannam, translated as ‘hell’, represents the abode of punishment for the disbelievers and evildoers: “Surely, the disbelievers will be in the torment of Hell to abide therein forever. (The torment) will not be lightened for them, and they will be plunged into destruction with deep regrets, sorrows, and despair therein” (Q. 43:74-75). Jahannam is depicted as a place of immense physical and emotional suffering, emphasising a sense of loss, regret, and despair (Rippin, 2001).

Images of Jahannam often include fire (Q. 4:56), chains, and shackles (Q. 73:12), symbolic of torment and restraint. These vivid depictions are a powerful deterrent for wrongdoing, encouraging individuals to shun sinful behaviour (Murata & Chittick, 1994).

Beyond the literal interpretations, scholars like Ghazālī in his “Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn” (Revival of the Religious Sciences) have also offered allegorical interpretations of Jannah and Jahannam. Ghazālī suggested that the joys of Jannah and the sufferings of Jahannam might be not only physical but also spiritual or psychological (Ghazālī & Nabulsi, 2009).

The concepts of Jannah and Jahannam also carry important ethical implications. They promote moral accountability by asserting that every action, whether good or evil, has consequences in the Akhirah (Q. 99:7-8). This belief encourages the cultivation of virtues such as truthfulness, generosity, and patience and avoids vices such as dishonesty, greed, and cruelty (Dammen McAuliffe, 2005).

End Times

The end times, also known as eschatology, is a central theme in Islamic thought, entwined with moral, ethical, and theological implications. Its encompassing aspects include the belief in the Day of Judgement (Yawm al-Qiyāmah), resurrection (Ba’th), paradise (Jannah), hell (Jahannam), and the appearance of figures like the Mahdi, the Dajjal, and the return of Jesus (Brown, 2017). In Islamic teachings, the end times are described vividly:

إِذَا ٱلشَّمْسُ كُوِّرَتْ ١ وَإِذَا ٱلنُّجُومُ ٱنكَدَرَتْ ٢ وَإِذَا ٱلْجِبَالُ سُيِّرَتْ ٣

“When the sun (with its spacious light) is folded up, when the stars fall, losing their lustre, when the mountains vanish (like a mirage)” (Q. 81:1-3).

Such descriptions remind humanity of the transitory nature of worldly existence and the ultimate reality of divine judgement, thus promoting the cultivation of a virtuous life. The concept of the Day of Judgement is fundamental in Islamic eschatology. This day represents the time when all beings will be held accountable for their actions: “So whosoever does good equal to the weight of an atom (or a small ant), shall see it. And whosoever does evil equal to the weight of an atom (or a small ant), shall see it” (Q. 99:7-8). This fosters a sense of moral responsibility and accountability, encouraging believers to act ethically, even in seemingly insignificant matters (Winter, 2008).

Furthermore, the notion of resurrection underscores the importance of spiritual preparation. It highlights the belief that life after death is a new existence where ultimate justice will be served. This belief not only provides consolation to those who have suffered in this life but also instils fear in the hearts of potential wrongdoers, enhancing moral restraint (Ayoub, 1984).

The figures associated with the end times in Islamic eschatology, such as the Mahdi and the Dajjal, also carry significant implications. The Mahdi, for instance, symbolises the ultimate victory of truth and justice, fostering hope and inspiring Us to strive for societal justice. The Dajjal, as an embodiment of deception and falsehood, serves as a reminder of the continual struggle against evil and corruption (Furnish, 2005).

The return of Jesus (ʿĪsā) is a distinct belief in Islamic eschatology. His second coming is often associated with restoring peace and eradicating injustice, imbuing We with the resolve to stand against oppression and promote peace (Khalidi, 2001).

The implications of eschatological beliefs also extend to community and societal levels. Faith in the end times can foster unity and collective action among We, encouraging them to work towards creating just societies and standing against oppression. Additionally, these beliefs can provide a theological framework that helps individuals make sense of societal and global events, potentially reducing anxiety and providing a sense of direction (Lawson, 2009).

However, it is crucial to note that while belief in the end times is an integral part of the Islamic faith, these beliefs should not lead to fatalism or neglect of worldly responsibilities. As noted by classical scholar al-Ghazālī, the belief in the afterlife should inspire active engagement in the world to improve oneself and society (Ghazālī & Nabulsi, 2009).

In the Islamic conceptual framework, resolution, completion, and intentionality form a triad of significant themes that permeate many aspects of faith and practice. These themes are manifest in beliefs, ethics, and the spiritual journey of a Muslim, offering a profound understanding of human nature and the divine purpose.

Resolution (al-ʿAzīmah) is a central theme in pursuing personal development and moral integrity in Islamic thought. The Qurʾān presents numerous instances that highlight the importance of resolution. For instance, it mentions Prophet Abraham’s (Ibrāhīm) unwavering resolution:

۞ وَإِذِ ٱبْتَلَىٰٓ إِبْرَٰهِـۧمَ رَبُّهُۥ بِكَلِمَـٰتٍۢ فَأَتَمَّهُنَّ ۖ قَالَ إِنِّى جَاعِلُكَ لِلنَّاسِ إِمَامًۭا ۖ قَالَ وَمِن ذُرِّيَّتِى ۖ قَالَ لَا يَنَالُ عَهْدِى ٱلظَّـٰلِمِينَ ١٢٤

“And remember when Ibrāhīm was tried by his Lord with certain commands, which he fulfilled. He (Allah) said (to him), ‘Indeed, I will make you a leader for the people.’ (Ibrāhīm) said, ‘And of my offspring (to make leaders).’ (Allah) said, ‘My Covenant (Prophethood) does not include wrongdoers'” (Q. 2:124).

This verse illustrates the relationship between resolution and divine favour, underscoring the significance of steadfastness and commitment in one’s faith journey (Al-Raysuni, 2013). The theme of completion (al-Kamāl) speaks to the notion of spiritual and moral perfection, a goal that We aspire to reach. The Qurʾān provides a model of completion in the character of Prophet Muhammad:

وَإِنَّكَ لَعَلَىٰ خُلُقٍ عَظِيمٍۢ ٤

“Indeed, you (O Muhammad) are on an exalted standard of character” (Q. 68:4).

The Prophet’s life and conduct encapsulate the notion of completion and serve as an ideal for We to emulate in their quest for moral and spiritual fulfilment (Esack, 1997). Intentionality (an-Niyyah) is integral to Islamic practice, shaping how We approach their faith. According to a well-known ḥadīth, “Verily actions are by intentions, and for every person is what he intended” (Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī 54). This highlights intentionality’s pivotal role in determining actions’ moral and spiritual value. Intentionality underlines the primacy of the heart and mind, reaffirming the holistic nature of Islamic spirituality, which encompasses both inner conviction and external action (Lombard, 2016).

The interplay of these three themes—resolution, completion, and intentionality—is evident in the broader narrative of Islamic spirituality. Resolution instigates the spiritual journey, fostering determination to seek divine proximity. Completion represents the ultimate objective, the spiritual and ethical ideal that a Muslim strives to attain. Meanwhile, intentionality shapes the path towards this goal, infusing actions with profound meaning and direction.

In the context of ethics, these themes encourage responsibility, sincerity, and the pursuit of excellence. They promote the cultivation of virtues such as patience, perseverance, honesty, and humility, all essential for the growth and development of a morally upright individual (Ramadan, 2004).

Moreover, these themes also have societal implications. Resolution can foster community resilience and determination, encouraging collective efforts to promote justice and welfare. Completion can serve as a standard for societal conduct, instilling a sense of responsibility towards achieving communal harmony and justice. Intentionality, conversely, can help cultivate sincerity and goodwill in societal interactions, promoting social cohesion and trust (Sachedina, 2009).

Conclusion

We have also explored the divine books’ significance, content, and languages of revelation, contemplating the alleged changes and adaptations within these texts. We investigated the role and importance of messengers in Islam, dissecting their roles as deliverers, teachers, and warners.

The discourse on predestination, free will, and their paradox has been a central theme in this paper. We have dissected the role of the Pen and the Tablet and evaluated the ethical implications of free will and determinism, with particular attention to their effects on the concepts of heaven, Hell, and the end times.

The themes of resolution, completion, and intentionality have been thoroughly studied, underlining their vital role in Islamic theological constructs. This holistic overview of the numerous aspects of Islamic theology has underscored this faith tradition’s profound depth and breadth.

Investigation into the nature and ranks of angels, focusing on Gabriel, Michael, Raphael, and Azrael, highlighted their roles in Islamic theology. Gabriel’s role as a divine messenger, Michael’s as a provider, Raphael’s as a healer, and Azrael’s as an angel of death offer diverse ways angels interact within human and divine realms (Al-Ashqar, 2003).

We also found that the identities of Beelzebul and Azazel need to be clarified, with varying interpretations across different Islamic schools of thought. Their roles, however, underscore a spiritual struggle between good and evil forces in the world (Lane, 1984).

The exploration of human-angel-jinn interaction provided rich insight into the complex web of relationships within the metaphysical world of Islam. Although mysterious, we learned these relationships are integral to understanding Islamic cosmology (Lebling, 2010).

Further, our exploration of the divine books illuminated the Qurʾān’s central position in Islam, its revelations in Arabic, and its preservation over time. We also addressed claims of alterations in these texts, concluding that the divine origin and preservation of the Qurʾān are fundamental Islamic beliefs (Neal Robinson, 2003).

Examining the role of messengers in Islam highlighted the significance of prophets in conveying divine revelations, teaching Islamic principles, and warning humanity of divine retribution. Their functions are crucial in understanding the delivery and dissemination of divine guidance (Brown, 2009).

Our exploration of predestination and free will in Islam underlined a delicate balance. It was concluded that while God’s knowledge encompasses all events, human beings are granted the ability to make choices (Jackson, 2002).

Finally, our exploration of themes of resolution, completion, and intentionality highlighted their significance in shaping Islamic ethics, societal norms, and spiritual journeys. They underpin many aspects of Muslim life, shaping personal development, moral integrity, spiritual fulfilment, and the essence of Islamic practice (Ramadan, 2004).

Summary

In the rich and vibrant landscape of Islamic theology, a captivating exploration of the multifaceted aspects of belief and conviction unfolds. Delving into the profound and revered concept of Arkān al-Īmān, the Pillars of Faith in Islam, intricately shapes the spiritual, ethical, and communal facets of a believer’s existence. These six fundamental beliefs act as a beacon of solace, certainty, and direction for countless individuals navigating the journey of life.

At the heart of these pillars stands the unwavering belief in Allāh, the omnipotent Creator and Nurturer of the universe, embodying an absolute and timeless divinity. Illuminating the teachings of the Holy Qur’an, the quintessence of His divine singularity is captured, accentuating the oneness of Allāh. “He is Allah, [who is] One, Allah, the Eternal Refuge” (Qur’an 112:1-2). The exploration also ventures into the realm of angels, ethereal beings of light and purity, assigned with divine responsibilities and playing crucial roles in the spiritual tapestry

Extending the exploration to divine scriptures, venerable books of guidance form yet another pillar of faith. Acknowledging the significance of sacred texts through time, from the Torah and the Gospel to the Psalms, the Qur’an is underscored as the ultimate revelation, validating truths and rectifying distortions, serving as a custodian of all preceding scriptures and steering believers towards righteousness.

Prophets, divinely chosen messengers, stand central to the Pillars of Faith, extending from Adam, the inaugural human, to Muhammad, the final prophet. These paragons of virtue guided their communities with sagacity and compassion, unwaveringly disseminating the divine word, and playing a pivotal role in weaving the moral and ethical fabric of society through their teachings and examples.

Navigating through the concept of the Day of Judgment, a pivotal moment of accountability is highlighted. Every soul is depicted as inevitably accounting for their deeds in this ephemeral world, with their destiny intricately linked to their actions. Divine justice and the impact of one’s choices are contemplated, urging believers towards a life of integrity and purpose.

Additionally, the belief in Al-Qadr, divine predestination, is explored, acknowledging Allāh’s omniscience and omnipotence while underscoring human agency and accountability. This belief presents a delicate interplay between divine decree and human free will, offering a profound dimension of Islamic theology.

The Pillars of Faith are positioned not merely as doctrinal beliefs, but as a transformative odyssey, nurturing and guiding believers’ lives. They offer a sanctuary of peace and divine connection, inviting contemplation on the beauty and depth of īmān, surrender to Islam’s principles, and the enriching spiritual and emotional experiences it engenders.

Furthermore, the nuanced dance between belief and disbelief, sincerity and hypocrisy, is delved into, exploring the complexities of kufr (disbelief) and nifāq (hypocrisy) within Islamic theology. Their antithesis to īmān is highlighted, advocating for understanding, compassion, and a deepened faith.

In summary, a captivating tapestry, intricately woven with the threads of Islamic beliefs, invites readers on a transformative journey towards divine connection. It unravels the Pillars of Faith, navigates the complexities of belief and disbelief, contemplates the divine tapestry of the universe, elucidates Allāh’s guidance, bridges faith and reason through philosophy, and reflects on the ethereal beings of angels. The exploration aims to enrich understanding, inspire reflection, and foster a profound connection to the treasures of Islamic faith.